Training and Conditioning

Walt Bazylewicz ©1997

This section consists of a brief overview of training and conditioning for athletes with a disability, followed by abstracts related to this topic.

Topic Overview

It was not until after World War II that people with disabilities became involved in athletics. A theme throughout many of the articles is that, prior to this time, people with disabilities were not considered athletes, but patients involved in athletic events for therapy. Most of their training was developed by medical doctors who were well versed in the disability, but not overly concerned about the athletes’ sport performance.

The organization primarily responsible for the birth of competitive sports for athletes with disabilities was the Stoke Mandeville Games Federation (ISMGF) in Great Britain. It was a bit of a surprise when the individuals involved in rehabilitation began to see themselves as athletes. However, several of the articles point to the need for people with disabilities to view themselves as athletes and individuals rather than disabled (Figoni, Lockette, & Surburg,1995; DePauw & Gavron, 1995) Naturally, once this occurred disabled athletes began and are still seeking out the best possible strategies for improving their performances in competition.

This paper incorporates the ideas and research findings of experts in training disabled athletes to better assist coaches and athletes in developing a successful training program.

Benefits of competing in sports

In many articles, not only the benefits that training has on athletic competition were discussed, but also the benefits of sports in general. There are many positives an individual with a disability will gain by participating in sports, including improved motor skills which can be used in everyday life, longer life, improved phsychosocial attitude, improved self esteem, and therapeutic benefits. These benefits are the same as an able-bodied person would experience.

The most important benefit for athletes with and without disabilities is having fun. If the activity is not enjoyed, regardless of the benefits, regular participation will not occur.

Beginning the training by
understanding the disability

Since participating in sports is about having an enjoyable time and reaping the benefits, it is important that the athlete reduce the risks and negatives of sport training. Gaining an in depth understanding of the disability is the first important hurdle to doing this. Training should begin with not only the athlete, but the coach as well, taking a good look at the athlete's disability.

Before the bulk of sport-specific training can occur, a great degree of training may need to done to become as independent as possible. Any rehabilitation will have to be completed before actual sport training can occur. The individual, really may have to go through a considerable amount of training first to achieve the quality of life goals that have been set. Much hard work and physical training may be required to reach these goals. But from this training an individual gets an understanding of what can be achieved and can begin to shift their goals and work ethic to sport-related aspirations rather than quality of life goals.

With any athletic activity, there are also risks involved to go along with the benefits. To make the training experience as safe as possible, a physician must be aware of the athlete’s goals and very much involved in helping them overcome any medical hurdles that are present. For example, medications may need to be changed in accordance with the intensity of exercise. The doctor should be able to shine some light on the drawbacks, if any, that go along with mixing a sport and a disability. A medical doctor can set up parameters of training to work within since disabilities can be unique in nature. For example, training routines that are used by athletes with progressive and neuromuscular disorders, may be vastly different from training programs of athletes with an amputation. Becoming fully aware and trained in how to handle the disability will help pave the way for a successful athletic training program.

Implementing a successful training
program through goal setting

Once a thorough knowledge of the disability is achieved, an athlete can begin the next step of establishing a training program. Goal setting is a powerful motivational tool for achieving success in any venture, sports related or not. The world of disability sport is certainly not an exception. Keeping the knowledge of the disability in mind, this area of training should be structured in the same manner an able-bodied individual would attack it. Setting realistic goals for achievement is critical and should be done early and often throughout training. An athlete will have to realize some of their limitations, such as age, but should not magnify those limitations or use them for excuses to a degree that goals are not achieved. Gender should have no bearing on goal setting. Basically, an athlete just starting out, will have to decide how high the goals are going to be set. Is the level of competition desired on the international, national, regional, or recreational level?

Goals are much easier set than met. Any athlete will need some extra form of motivation through the course of training. Goal setting is a great way of getting and staying motivated because the athlete can continuously meet and set new goals as training progresses. When trying to achieve goals, it is always helpful to make them public. Having a training partner or coach who knows the goals also will make the athlete strive harder to reach them. Seeing and watching other athletes reach their goals, especially if they are similar, will also often drive the athlete to achieve.

If funding or some other form of compensation is available an athlete may seek out a coach with similar goals. As they say, whenever tackling any task, "two heads are better than one." Obviously, if the athlete wants to simply compete on a recreational level, then a coach may not be needed. However, it never hurts to have someone to help develop skills even if it means sporadic lessons. It is extremely important that the athlete and coach set up an individualized training plan. Knowing when to back-off the athlete and convincing the athlete to back-off themselves is an important part of a coaches job. Therefore, the coach also will need to become very familiar with the nature of the disability and its physical limitations in order to set up obtainable goals. Many times the coach may play the role of a sport psychologist and have to help the athlete tackle the mental stresses that go along with not only being an athlete, but a person with a disability. As you can see it is important that the coach be an individual that can wear many faces and is knowledgeable.

Safe training is good training

Safety is always an extremely important issue to be considered and evaluated not only when setting up a training program but continuously throughout the routine. This responsibility falls on all those involved. The medical doctor, coach, and athlete all have to take some responsibility for this concern. The degree of skill level and condition of the person will need to be evaluated before they begin to train. The doctor, coach, or athlete can usesome simple tests that involve speed, body composition, strength, cardiovascular capabilities, and endurance. The results of these tests will come in handy when establishing goals as well as pinpointing areas to be emphasized during training.

The last thing an athlete wants is to become injured during a practice session, voiding the chance to participate in competition. This is especially true for athletes with disabilities, since it may take them longer to rehabilitate after an injury and quality of life may greatly diminish due to an athletic injury. With that in mind, much thought will need to be put into the location in which the training will occur, the type of equipment selected, and possible and common injuries associated with various workout routines and movements. With these concerns addressed prior to the start of training, hopefully potential problems can be handled early or avoided all together. Modification of training equipment and the environment may be a good injury prevention technique for coaches working with athletes with disabilities. Prevent the disaster by training and competing only where emergencies can be handled professionally and in a timely fashion.

Elements of successful training

When considerations to the above elements have been realized, the athlete and coach can begin to get into the bulk of their training plan. Developing a calendar for goal achievement and which type of training should be taking place when, will be necessary. Obviously, the training taking place during the season will be less intense from post season and pre-season workouts. The main goal during the competition season is maintenance of the current condition and remaining healthy. Building power, strength, endurance, confidence, and developing sport specific skills will fit into the various off-season routines. Based on my review of these articles a training program will consist of these key ingredients: sport specificity, progression, cross training, stretching, and consistency.

An important concept needed to be addressed in a training program is that of being sport specific. This idea is that some part of athletic training should simulate the actual competition. The coach and athlete can choose to be specific by isolating a skill to practice. For example, a basketball player practicing free throws or a wheelchair marathoner doing roadwork. The fundamentals of the sport should be repeated continuously until perfected by the athlete.

It is important for athletes to always reach for new heights in the competitive achievement. This is also true in their training methods and is refereed to as training progression. When an athlete ceases to continue to improve in training, s/he can no longer expect to continue to improve competitive performance. This way of thinking will reduce the possibility of becoming bored with the training routine as well. An example of progressive training is a wheelchair tennis player always setting up practice matches with players who possess a higher United States Tennis Association Rating (USTA) than they hold. By continuously training against tougher competition, the thinking is that eventually the lower level player’s skills will also progress. It is important, however that the athlete does not train too hard or s/he may feel they are not getting better of will never reach the desired level. Another way to look at it is if the workout does not continue to push the athlete, then the athlete’s skill, endurance, cardiovascular capability, or strength will plateau.

To avoid boredom, burnout, hitting plateaus, or injury from overworking a specific movement, it is wise to work in some form of cross training into the routine. Many benefits can be obtained even when not working on sport specific skills. For an example, a wheelchair basketball player would find doing some road work beneficial to their basketball game. Endurance would increase due to added arm and shoulder strength and increased cardiovascular capacity. A wheelchair marathoner can benefit from a weight training program since strength would increase and the risk of developing carpal tunnel syndrome would reduce by cutting back on their roadwork. Cross training can be achieved through strength training, road work, participation in another sport with some similar skills, or even by participating in mental exercises such as visualization.

Stretching muscles before working out has been a practice for some time and probably for good reason. While some studies have shown that stretching before working out will not reduce injury risk (Finkelstein), most coaches and athletes still feel this is a valuable ingredient to a work out session. Tests done on lab animals have shown that muscles that are stretched can withstand a greater load.

The last element of training discussed in this paper is that of consistency. None of the above ideas and theories are worth implementing unless they are done on a fairly regular basis. In the big picture, training needs to be done on a regular basis if the athlete is going to reap the benefits.

Overtraining

There is a fine line that elite athletes have to walk between under training and overtraining. It is important for the athlete to have a well planned training calendar an to stick to it. Working out once in awhile will not reap many benefits. It is important that the training sessions are on a regular basis and last the proper length. For an elite athlete these workouts are strenuous and frequent. The competitive nature in the athlete can take over creating a problem called overtraining.

Overtraining is now being considered a new "athlete’s disease" (Vines, 1993). Fierce competition breeds this problem among athletes. As each individual attempts to out do the other, the chances for overtraining are real. Unfortunately, nothing good comes from overtraining. Athletes are more likely to injure themselves during training, become sick, fatigued, and or experience depression. If signs of overtraining begin to creep in, an athlete can reduce the intensity of their training routine fairly easily. By simply putting more time between workout sessions or more time between the exercises within a workout an athlete can lower the intensity but still maintain their basic workout philosophy. With the risk of overtraining it is important that the routine be continuously evaluated making certain the athlete is achieving goals but not by putting themselves at any needless risks.

Future training of athletes with disabilities

My predictions for how athletes will train are based on readings that I have done for this paper and web site. In a way, we can look into the future of disabled sports through modern day able-bodied sports. The common support channels that are available for able-bodied sports today, hopefully will become available for athletes with disabilities as well. Athletes are getting an earlier start, more money is involved, training is almost endless, equipment is becoming more efficient and safer, facilities are improving and becoming more accessible, and as a result, athlete performance is improving. Coaches and athletic trainers are becoming better qualified, more available, and in some countries, even certified in specific disability related areas.

As sports for athletes with disabilities grow, the amount of research related to the topic will naturally increase as well. Until then the research that is done for able-bodied sports will also continue to help the athletes who participate with disabilities. Especially research in sport psychology, and research involving the central nervous system. New studies are showing that exercise has a great deal to do with how we behave. One study has shown that exercise can even improve interactive and play behavior and in youth (Yamanaka & Furuya, 94). It is almost a certainty that we are just beginning to understand how exercise and physical activity affect our everyday lives and our development through childhood. The area of the body we know the least about is the brain. So as we continue to learn about the brain and how it works with the other body systems we can expect that how to train for athletic performance will be affected.

Abstracts

Stein, J. (1991). Weight training for wheelchair sports. In Sport instruction for individuals with disabilities (pp. 235-252). Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Dance.

This article provides some basic weight training information for athletes who use wheelchairs. In past years this group of athletes has not made weight training a significant part of their sport training. However, recently there seems to be some signs that athletes are beginning to see the advantages of weight training. The author uses a story about the 1978 Boston National Wheelchair Marathon champion, George Murray, to spark interest in the reader. The story tells how Murray could not compete for three miles nonstop before getting into strength training. Stein moves into the next section of the article by attacking common myths in regards to weight training. Within this section, he concentrates on the following topics: endurance, flexibility, weight resistance vs. weight training, use of specific skill heavy equipment, gender issues, and weight training frequency. Guidelines for a sound and safe program are in the next section of this article. Stein gives twenty tips for athletes to think about while developing their weight training program. These tips are for the most part, well explained. Rather than just listing tips the author explains his point of view on why each is an important ingredient. The best way to weight train is in constant debate. Some of these guidelines may not work for every athlete and should be used as food for thought rather than the last word. Stein concludes the chapter with descriptions of starting points and movements of specific lifts and training exercises for athletes with disabilities. The illustrations (by Jane S. Bradtke) that accompany with the text are helpful.

Bieber, N. (1996). Training for equestrian competition. Palaestra,12, 35-38.

The author of this article is a learning disabilities specialist as well as a riding instructor. The general idea of this article is to provide some basic equestrian training information for the prospective rider, beginning rider, or riding coach. The author encourages riders with disabilities to approach equestrian techniques in the same manner as an able-bodied person. The first step for a rider or coach is to find a person with the same aspirations and views on competition. To begin the article the author points out some traits that a athlete with disabilities should look for in a coach. Besides a good coach/athlete relationship, effective training is listed as another key to becoming a competitive rider. The responsibility of how to organize the training and the matching of athlete with horse belongs to the coach. The rider does the hard work, concentration, and seemingly endless repetition. Each training episode consists of three basic components. The first is the warm-up period. This phase of training is noted by Bieber as being influenced by many variables. The approach to this activity may change daily depending on the rider's mood, the weather, etc. Once the warm-up has been completed the rider and horse move on to working on specific techniques and endurance. It is important that the goals and objectives be clearly defined and skills be worked on individually. The rider and coach constantly strive for a "oneness" between the horse and rider. The writer discusses some special techniques that may help to achieve this oneness. The techniques Bieber discusses are taken from Sally Swift's book Centered in Riding and are called "soft eyes," "writing of breathing," centering," and "building blocks." Dressage, a competition in which the horse and rider are judged individually against an ideal score, is also described in the article. At times this competition is set to music and traditionally is a rider favorite. Other events usually offered for riders with disabilities include: English and western equitation, obstacle course, jumping, driving, and various games.

Steadward, R., & Walsh, C. (1986). Training and fitness programs for disabled athletes: Past, present, and future. In C. Sherrill (Ed.), Sport and disabled athletes (pp.1-19). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

This paper was written as a historical look on the developments in training of athletes with disabilities, spotlights present efforts to better performance among athletes with disabilities and offers some predictions for the future of sports for athletes with disability related issues. The authors make their point on how far athletes with disabilities have come through the years by graphing winning times from past wheelchair race events. There is an amazing decline in the times through the years. The authors spend some time discussing the birth of sports for athletes with disabilities giving much credit to the International Stoke Mandeville Games Federation (ISMGF). The first games took place on July 21, 1948 in England with international competition starting in 1952. The improvements to the wheelchair was, is, and will continue to improve lifestyle and athletic performance for people with disabilities. Today the biggest change in disabled sport is just the attitude towards it. It has evolved from therapy into strong competitive physical fitness. Participants are athletes rather than patients and the training for competition is limit pushing and fierce. Training techniques have paved the way for improved sport performance but, coaching has also improved through the years. Today athletes with disabilities can seek out a coach, (in some countries, disability specific certified coaches) rather than relying on a medical doctor for direction. Now that disabled sport has evolved, the authors of this paper feel that research can begin to further the advancement of athletes and better understand capabilities, teaching methods, and training approaches. Research and technology will fuel disability sport into the future but, not by itself. Steadward and Walsh also make a strong point that youth programs will have a heavy factor in the development for disabled sport.

DePauw, K. P., & Gavron, S. J. (1995). Disability and sport (Coaching athletes with disabilities, pp.167-178). Champaign, IL. Human Kinetics.

The general focus of this chapter is to approach training of athletes with disabilities in the same manner that an able bodied person would be trained. Readers are referred to books an manuals on how to approach specific sports. The authors remind the readers that training is a highly individual experience that it should be approached in that manner. The first step is to identify the athlete’s "learning channel," followed by teaching approaches and some discussion of motor learning principles. This chapter quickly becomes a series of check lists. The most beneficial list is under the heading of General Principles for Coaching Athletes with Disabilities. This generic list is made up of good pointers for any coach developing a training program for athletes of any skill level. It features communication, positive feedback, and goal setting. There are some specific pointers given for working with disabled athletes such as: treating the athlete as a person first and disabled second, being knowledgeable of the disability, and attempting to use smaller groups. The authors continue with their list type format. The following lists gives ideas for training individuals with mental retardation or developmental disabilities, training athletes with physical disabilities, and tips for working with athletes with sensory impairments. These are all excellent lists for coaches just starting out in the arena of disabled sport or for those who made need a refresher. These lists are followed by what seems to be a somewhat misplaces section on unique sports where the authors give some brief descriptions of sports that are unique to the disabled sport world such as sledge hockey and quad rugby. The big picture of this chapter is valid in saying coaches or athletes first need to know their sport, educate themselves on the disability involved, then adapt a training routine from an already proven successful training program.

Ling, K. (1998). Reggie Colton, Palaestra,14(1), 52-53.

This article in Palaestra focuses on United States Wheelchair basketball star Reggie Colton. Colton career statistics are given along with a little background information on the athlete including the nature of his disability. In Reggie’s case it is an above the knee amputation that Reggie endured due to a train accident when he was 13 years old. While Reggie’s training focus is basketball, he is an all around athlete and has also competed in wheelchair volleyball and road racing. Reggie’s basketball training is grouped into three basic components which he sets goals for prior to beginning. First his basketball skills, then his endurance and thirdly, his muscular strength. Another area that could be separate but usually is combined with one of the previous types of skills is his wheelchair skills. For basketball Reggie begins with 20 lay-ups from both the right and left. He has to make all twenty before he continues his workout. The next skill he focuses on is passing, where he does twenty five in each direction with a target distance of twenty five feet. Reggie likes to get a change of scenery when he does his cardiovascular training. His main training alternates between roadwork and swimming. He spends at least two hours in the pool and logs at least ten miles of roadwork per week. A portion of the road work may be done on a hand crank to avoid overworking specific upper body muscles. Reggie’s training regiment is topped off by daily push-ups and sit-ups. He cranks out 4 sets of 25 push-ups and 4 sets of 100 sit-ups. For strength training Reggie focuses on five upper body lifts. Shoulder press, bench press, lat pull downs, triceps pull downs, and biceps curls make up the bulk of his weight training. A chart in the article give specific weights and repetitions for these lifts.

Figoni, S. F., Lockette, K. F., & Surburg, P. R. (1995). Exercise prescription: Adapting principles of conditioning. In P. D. Miller (Ed.), Fitness programming and physical disability (pp. 67-77). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

In this article the authors review some principles that are vital when considering any training program and touch on some considerations that should be examined when athletes with disabilities are involved. The principles reviewed are overload, specificity, progression, and consistency. Establishing the program for the individual is stated as being important with the client's goals always in mind. The difficulty level of the training program can be altered by changing these four variables: frequency of exercise sessions, intensity of sessions, length of sessions, and the rest between training sets. These variables are all determined by the fitness level of the participant, his/her functional abilities, and the athlete’s personal goals. Obviously, the higher these variables are the greater the training load and intensity can be. One negative of working at a high level of intensity is there becomes a greater risk of injury. The authors discuss the benefits of resistance training, stretching exercises, aerobic conditioning, and how the variables of overload change these components of training. The authors recommend that the training should be activity specific. For example, the type of training should be the same or similar to the activity that needs to be improved. The idea of progression is simply that training needs to become more intense over time or the client will stop seeing gains. New levels of overload need to be aimed for continuously. Consistency in a training program is also a necessity. If the individual is not training on a regular basis, then little or no gains will be made. Since overload, progression, consistency, and specificity are so vital to an effective training program, it is essential that the program to be evaluated on a regular basis. Adjustments will continuously be made to reach new goals. Before any program is set up, much background information and screening will need to take place, especially for those clients with progressive and neuromuscular disorders.

Thompson, B. A., & Morse, M. (1998). Training tips: Functional adaptation (Part One). Sports 'n Spokes, 24(2), 38-41.

This article focuses on beginning strength training for athletes who participate in wheelchair sports. This is stage one of a five tiered training program. The result of this type of training is added muscle strength, power, and endurance. All of these are thought to be critical for the wheelchair athlete. However, perhaps the greatest advantage gained from resistance training is the lowered risk of injury. The work out described in this article is a four to twelve week workout that is designed for the athlete just getting started. The workout consists of just seven exercises and works in low levels of resistance on a three-day-a-week schedule. The athlete is usually working within 50 to 60% of their one repetition maximum. This light of weight allows the athlete to get approximately ten to twenty repetitions per set. Three to four sets is the norm with sixty seconds of recovery time between. The drawback to this great number of repetitions and multiple sets is that the workout time can take up to 50 minutes or more to complete. The authors make it clear that one of the main objectives of getting started in resistance training is developing proper technique, weight control, and proper weight of motion. Once the athlete has mastered the functional adaptation phase, training for a specific sport can begin. This is called the Hypertrophy phase and focuses on increasing muscle size and force capabilities. Maximal strength development is the next phase where the athlete continues sport specific training and developing neuromuscular system. The phase called conversion to power should take place at the beginning of the competitive season. Endurance and increasing power are the main goals of this phase. As the season progresses an athletes training goals change to more of a maintenance mode since most of the time and energy is directed to actually competing.

Davis, G., Tupling, S. J., & Shepard, R. J. (1986) Dynamic strength and physical activity in wheelchair users. In C. Sherrill (Ed.), Sport and disabled athletes (pp.139-145). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

This study examined the differences of upper-body isokinetic force, work, and power in highly active wheelchair users compared to those individuals who are less active. Some conclusions were made on defining the best way strength assessment can be achieved in these individuals, as well as determining how wheelchair sports enhances movement patterns.

The subjects in this study were 30 asymptomatic males with neuromuscular impairments aged between 16 and 42. The subjects were first evaluated by the International Stoke Mandeville Games Federation (ISMGF). Height, weight, and skinfolds were recorded before the testing began. The 16 subjects were then divided into two groups with group one being highly active (HA) while the other group consisted of less active (LA) individuals. The HA group consisted of athletes who were training for wheelchair competitions and were working out at least four times per week. The LA group was made up of individuals who exercised less than two times per week. The two groups had no significant differences in other physical characteristics such as age, height, mass, or even ISMGF disability classification. During the test the peak moment, the peak power, average power, and total work were measured for the shoulder and elbow joints. These tests were performed on a CYBEX II isokinetic dynamometer, which is considered one of the best ways to testing upper body strength in a laboratory. Average power results were thought to be the most useful since they measured muscular strength throughout the full range of joint movement.

The results of the tests were as expected, with the HA group scoring significantly better than the LA group. The biggest difference between the two groups was in the area of shoulder abduction. What seemed surprising was the results in the endurance area with both groups averaging between 47% to 56 % decrease in performance after 50 repetitions of the movements.

Vines, G. (1993). Overdosing on exercise. New Scientist,140(1894), 13.

This article centers on the understudied the "athlete’s disease" of overtraining. Two scientists and their research are featured. The first person is Lynn Fitzgerald, an immunologist and a former long distance runner. Fitzgerald began studying the links between exercise and the immune system when she realized her blood was partially immunodeficient after heavy training. The second scientist is Eric Newsholme who is a marathon runner as well as a biochemist at the University of Oxford. Newsholme is especially interested on the effects of overtrained muscles on the immune system. Newsholme’s research looks at the possibility that athlete depression and fatigue can be caused by overtraining.

Fitzgerald decided that blood testing from large groups of athletes would be a monumental task, thus she created a way to test saliva for IgA antibodies which give a read on the body’s immune cells. In her experiment she used the British women’s hockey team as subjects. She found that when an athlete had a dramatic drop in saliva antibodies, a viral infection followed in every individual. Other athletes became ill with viral disease without showing a drop in saliva antibodies, but recovered from their illness at a much faster rate than low level antibody athletes. Her new research will examine why moderate exercise seems to boost the immune system.

Newsholme sees muscles as a part of the immune system since antibody producing white blood cells use muscle produced glutamine as fuel. He feels that overworked and tired muscles may fail to produce quality levels of glutamine. In fact levels of glutamine have been found to be low in post race marathoner runners. The depression or feelings of fatigue are a result of excess tryptophan getting to the brain where, as a result, serotonin levels rise. Tryptophan has fewer competing amino acids since hard working muscles snatch up the other branched-chain amino acids. Newsholme figured if his theory was correct, he could pump extra branch-chained amino acids in half of 193 marathon runners to help balance the levels of tryptophan. While this article does not say what the effects of the extra amino acid were on the athletes’ mind set, it did seem to improve the athletes performance cutting an average of 5.5 minutes off their marathon times.

Manuel, B. M., McDemott, W. M., & Amorosino, C. S. (1991). Poliomyelitis: New problems with an old disease. The New England Journal of Medicine, 324(17), 1206-1207.

After much disbelief on the behalf of doctors, patients finally convinced the medical profession that their pain, weakness, and muscle loss was due to the polio virus they were attacked by 25 to 35 years earlier. The medical community launched new research on this organic disorder and labeled it post-polio syndrome. Studies by Cashman showed the first evidence that denervation in polio patients was in fact occurring. His studies have found evidence of ongoing denervation in both subjects that reported symptoms and also in those who had not experienced any new symptoms. Increased jitters, antrophic muscle fiber, and neural-cell adhesion molecules confirmed the recent and continuous denervation. Some feel that this may just be part of the aging process. The problem with this theory is that this kind of loss of motor neurons and muscle fibers is occurring about ten to twenty years too soon. Excessive use or overloading the muscles could be a possible cause. Other studies are showing that Post-polio syndrome is definitely affecting most, if not every, motor unit already damaged by the virus. The medical community believes, however, that these individuals should not be concerned that they will return to a previous state of their disability and with a good exercise program, deterioration can be slowed or even stopped.

Finkelstein, H. (1990). Ontario study raises doubt about stretching. Sports Medicine, 18(1), 48-49.

According to this epidemiological study, stretching may not reduce the risk of injury during an athletic event. This study included a years of injury reports from 1,288 athletes ranging in age from 14 to 76. Participants answered questionnaires about their training habits and assessed briefly on their physical condition. They were later contacted at 4, 8, and 12 months and asked about the injuries, if any, that were suffered. Questions in regards to treatment and change of training habits due to the injuries were asked. 43% of these athletes stated that they always stretched before their workout while 8% never did any stretching. The remaining 49% stretched sometimes but not other times had the highest rate of injury of the three groups of athletes. Age or gender seemed to have no effect on the study results. A possible reason for these results is the lack of proper stretching techniques on the part of many athletes. Another variable not taken into account was the time spent stretching before the workout activity. Stretching still seems popular with most sports medicine doctors. Tests done with lab animals show that a stretched muscle can withstand a greater load than an non-stretched muscle-tendon. It is suggested that future research may be done using a well planned stretching program, putting half the athletes on the program while the other half goes without. Then comparing the injury rates between the groups after at least 6 months. While the relationship between injuries and stretching programs is a tough one to get a hold on stretching is believed to be especially important for older athletes with stiffer connective tissue.

Coutts, K. (1986). Physical and physiological characteristics of elite wheelchair marathoners. In C. Sherrill (Ed.), Sport and disabled athletes (pp. 157-162). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Elite wheelchair marathoners were the focus of this study that looked at the physical traits and the physiological responses to maximal wheelchair exercise. For comparison purposes other elite wheelchair athletes were used. These athletes who ranged from 24 to 36 years of age completed six main areas of testing in one visit to a laboratory. The first two tests, done on a CYBEX machine, measured peak torque for flexion and extension at both the elbow and shoulder. The number of dips completed in one minute and handgrip strength were two separate tests. The fifth test took place on a wheelchair ergometer where heart rate, minute ventilation, respiratory exchange ratio, oxygen pulse, maximal oxygen uptake, values of power output, and ventilatory equivalent for oxygen were recorded. Finally testing athletes skinfold thickness rounded out the testing. Average values of each test for the two groups were calculated and compared.

The results of these tests found that the non-marathon group was a little thicker in all areas of the skinfold tests. These findings are consistent with findings from similar studies done on able bodied athletes. The marathoners performed better in all areas of strength testing except peak torque for elbow extension and shoulder flexion were there was no apparent differences. The oxygen uptake testing showed that the marathoners had a higher maximal oxygen uptake then their non-marathoner counterparts. As expected, heart rate, minute ventilation, oxygen pulse, and power output were also higher in the marathon group. The non-marathon subjects had a higher mean level of ventilatory equivalent for oxygen. The difference between groups was minimal in the respiratory exchange ratio when maximal oxygen uptake was reached. The results of these tests are probably due to the rigorous training the marathoners put themselves through. The smaller pushrims on the marathon chair require the athlete to build up a great deal of strength to achieve a strong pace while racing. Non-marathon chairs have bigger pushrims and are designed for mobility and change of direction. The oxygen uptake tests were consistent with similar tests done on able-bodied athletes.

Yamanaka, T., & Furuya, T. (1992). Use of running exercises for preschoolers with mental retardation as a means of improving play or school activity. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78(2), 915-925

The purpose of this study was to exam mentally handicapped children and the effects of running on their quality of movement, interactive behavior and running improvement. Running was selected as the means of exercise since most preschoolers love to run and the interest would be high. Seven subjects were involved in the study. Three were deemed of normal developmental level while the remaining four showed mental retardation.. Three of the four handicapped participants had little exercise activity at home and all three of the normal ability subjects had an average amount of exercise at home.

The procedure was to have subjects run around in a 4 meter circle, three days a week, with music playing in the room. The study lasted eleven weeks with each session lasting approximately 20 minutes. Three observers used video cameras and checklists to monitor the students behavior during free time. Observations began one month before the running exercise then were repeated 1.5 months after the exercising program began. Quality of movement was measure by observation and checking the pulse of the subjects.

The results showed that the handicapped students increased their running skills considerably. Especially the individuals who were enthusiastic about training. Social interaction improved across the board as well. Mostly in two of three handicapped children. Quality of movement was seen as improving also in both the session before exercise and during. The results of this research may not be representative of the larger population due to the small number of subjects studied. Results also may have been swayed by the subjects becoming more accustomed to their pre-school routine or by the simple fact that the are growing older and more proficient at running, moving, and interacting.

Furst, D. M., Ferr T., & Megginson, N. (1993). Motivation of disabled athletes to participate in triathlons. Psychological Reports, 72, 403-406.

The purpose of this study was to seek out the reasons participants in wheelchair triathlons participate. The subjects involved in this survey numbered at 25 and were competitors in an October, 1990 triathlon in California. the triathlon consisted of a 400 yard swim, 7.5 km of cycling, and 10 km of road racing for quadriplegics. The paraplegics participated in an 800 yard swim, 10 km of cycling, and a 15 km road race. The age ranged from 14 to 56 years of age.

Each participant was given a questionnaire to complete in regards to their reasons for participation. The top three motivational factors for becoming involved with the triathlon was: 1) (77%) motivated by other disabled athletes, 2) (50%) motivated by being involved in sports prior to becoming disabled, and 3) (27%) said that friends were a major influence. Getting motivated for training is not always easy and these subjects were asked what helped them out. 31% said other disabled athletes motivated their training. There second most influential motivation source (27%) came from within the individual themselves. Adapted physical education specialist also helped 27% of the athletes find motivation for training. Having fun, physical development, love of competition, and socialization were big factors for participating in sport activities.

While the numbers participating in this survey were not large. It seemed clear that athletes with disabilities can have a strong effect on others just starting out in their training programs.