Psychological/Mental Skills

Kelly Bonnar ©1997

This section consists of a brief overview of psychological/mental skills that may be useful to athletes with a disability, followed by abstracts related to this topic. Relevant list serves and web sites are listed at the end of this section.

Topic Overview

Sport psychology is a discipline that considers they psychological factors that influence performance and participation in sports. Anxiety, self-confidence, motivation, aggression, and mental training techniques such as goal setting, mental imagery, self-talk and attentional control are some examples of what sports psychologists study. It is a relatively new discipline, but research with able-bodied athletes is abundant. Athletes and coaches emphasize the importance of mental training because successful performances are not simply the function of physical skills -- mental skills are also important. That is, the content of athletes' thoughts prior to competition, and even in practice, are important factors for successful performance.

Unfortunately, research examining the psychological factors associated with disability sports in lacking. Sport psychologists have not made much attempt to study the applicability of sport psychology to athletes with disabilities. The focus of many published studies has been to compare psychological profiles of athletes with disabilities to able-bodied athletes and individuals with disabilities who do not participate in sports. Sport psychologists have only begun to explore how mental skills training can influence the performance of athletes with disabilities. This overview will explore issues concerning the applicability of mental skills training programs to athletes with disabilities.

Psychological profiles of athletes with disabilities

It is important to examine the psychological impact of sport. Does sport have a positive psychological effect on its participants? The majority of North American families have children participating in some type of youth sport program. Why do they do this? Youth sports are designed to promote psychological well-being, character, physical fitness, and enjoyment. In most cases this is what youth sport participants Experience. Children are placed into these programs because parents want their children to have these experiences. Does sport have the same effect on individuals with disabilities?

The majority of published studies examining psychological well-being of athletes with disabilities have used a questionnaire called the Profile of Mood States to compare the moods of sport participants with the moods of nonparticipants. Results from this questionnaire consistently suggest the presence of a very strong, positive personality among athletes with disabilities. The Iceberg Profile is a personality profile that defines able-bodied athletes as being higher in vigor, and lower in tension, depression, anger, confusion and fatigue when compared to nonathletes. Athletes with disabilities seem to exhibit a similar profile. In some cases, the profile is much stronger. The same is found to be true when comparing the profiles of athletes with disabilities to individuals with disabilities who do not participate in sports. This suggests that participation in sport for individuals with disabilities could result in increased life satisfaction and contentment. If this is the case, then individuals with disabilities should be encouraged to participate in sports.

It has also been suggested that participation in sports can increase self-confidence. Self-confidence is a cognition that reflects one’s conviction that he/she can be successful. In the realm of sport, it is very possible that one’s self-confidence will be positively influenced because there is the occasion to accomplish goals, receive recognition, and rewards. If an athlete with a disability can find self-confidence in sports, it may be that this sport specific self-confidence will filter into other areas of life. That is, athletes who feel confident in their ability to be successful in sports may begin feeling more confident about being successful at other life tasks. In this way, sports for individuals with disabilities can become an arena for improving quality of life.

Self-confidence can also be considered from a sport-specific perspective in terms of the relationship it has with performance. It is a well-known fact that athletes who have high self-confidence consistently outperform athletes who have low self-confidence. To have successful performances then, it is necessary to have high self-confidence. Therefore, coaches and sport psychologists should make every possible effort to create an atmosphere that is conducive to the development and maintenance of self-confidence. For example, coaches should ensure that there are plenty of occasions to demonstrate ability in practice. In addition, realistic yet challenging goals should be set as a measure of performance accomplishment in practice. Furthermore, coaches and sport psychologists should always give positive feedback that emphasizes skill development. If guidelines such as these are followed, all athletes, including athletes with disabilities, should begin to feel more efficacious about their abilities. In addition, this can foster the development of an enjoyable sporting experience.

Self-confidence is also related to anxiety. Anxiety is defined as negative arousal. It can be manifested physiologically (sweaty palms, increased heart rate and respiration) or cognitively (worry, self-doubt). Anxiety also affects performance. Studies have shown that athletes who experience high anxiety have poorer performances than athletes who do not report experiencing high levels of anxiety. Some would suggest that athletes who have high self-confidence will naturally have low anxiety. So, it is ideal for an able-bodied athlete to have high self-confidence and low anxiety. Is this ideal for the athlete with a disability?

Not all athletes with disabilities report experiencing anxiety in the same way that able-bodied athletes report experiencing anxiety. In many cases, athletes with physical disabilities, such as those with amputations or spinal cord injury, have experienced previous life trauma -- they have had to deal with the loss of a limb or the loss of the use of their limbs. In the process of having to cope with such dramatic life changes, it is likely that these individuals developed effective coping mechanisms. This may be why some athletes with disabilities do not report experiencing the same type of anxiety as do able-bodied athletes. Athletes with physical disabilities may know how to deal with anxiety better than do athletes who have not had the same types of life experiences.

Therefore, when considering how anxiety can affect the performance of athletes with disabilities, it is important to consider the individual athlete, specifically focusing on the type of disability.

Mental skills training programs for athletes with disabilities

Most of the information regarding sport psychology and athletes with disabilities focuses on developing psychological profiles of the athletes. However, there is more to sport psychology than simply describing the personalities of athletes. Once the descriptions have been made, it is important to develop an intervention that will maximize the qualities that are necessary for a positive sporting experience. Unfortunately, little is known about the application of performance enhancement techniques for athletes with disabilities.

For example, many able-bodied athletes report using mental imagery. Mental imagery can also be referred to as mental practice, mental rehearsal, or even visualization. Mental imagery has a number of uses. Imagery can be used to facilitate the learning of a skill, to enhance the quality of an already acquired skill, to motivate, and to control competitive anxiety and self-confidence. In the correct setting and under the proper circumstances, mental imagery has been quite effective with able-bodied athletes. Can mental imagery work for individuals with disabilities? The answer to this question is, in part, dependent upon what type of disability is being considered. For example, because mental imagery is a cognitive technique, is it useful for athletes with developmental disability? Can they understand the purpose and the content of the image? In most cases, imagery is used in a relaxed state, with closed eyes and is often guided by a sport psychologist. How is this process altered to suit an athlete who is hard of hearing? Obviously, it is impossible to ask an individual who is deaf to close their eyes and follow the instructional, verbal guidelines. Does this mean that these individuals cannot use imagery? Furthermore, can individuals who are blind use mental imagery? What types of images can they create? It must be noted here that mental imagery is more than just visual -- it makes use of all the senses (kinesthetic, tactile, olfactory, gustatory). Will mental imagery be effective for athletes who are blind if they create an image based of their other senses? All of these questions must be explored before applying any type of imagery program with these athletes.

Mental imagery is only one technique used by athletes to enhance performance. Similar questions exist for other types of strategies designed to promote performance. For example, many able-bodied athletes use progressive relaxation at competitions to control arousal. Progressive relaxation involves tensing and relaxing all muscles in the body with the intention of achieving a relaxed state. The normal position during this exercise is to lie down, with closed eyes. This can pose a problem for athletes who are blind and deaf, and may even pose a problem for athletes with physical disabilities. Can an athlete who has cerebral palsy or spinal cord injury successfully use this technique? Other types of strategies used by able-bodied athletes include positive self-talk, goal setting, attentional control and focus with thought stopping, and many others. More research is needed in this area before conclusion can be drawn about how appropriate these techniques are for athletes with disabilities.

Before examining how these techniques work, it might be interesting to find out if athletes with disabilities currently make use of performance enhancement techniques. How do they use it? Which techniques do they apply? How is sport psychology perceived by athletes with disabilities?

At this point, there are so many questions left unanswered, that it is almost impossible to discuss the issues. Research in this area must reach beyond descriptions of personality profiles, and move more toward the application of performance enhancement techniques. Afterall, individuals with disabilities who participate in sports are athletes. They could definitely use mental skills training to improve performances and promote an enjoyable sporting experience. To date, we know that the psychological profiles of able-bodied athletes and athletes with disabilities are similar. The next logical next step is to discover if the same psychological techniques can be applied.

Abstracts

Campbell, E., & Jones, G. (1997). Precompetition anxiety and self-confidence in wheelchair sport participants. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 14, 95-107.

This study analyzed how male and female athletes with disabilities of the lower limbs respond to stress associated with athletic competition. Using the Multidimensional Anxiety Theory, the authors hypothesized that cognitive anxiety and self-confidence would remain relatively stable prior to competition, but somatic anxiety would increase as the event approached. Furthermore, they suggest that the frequency of cognitive and somatic anxiety would increase as the competition approached, but the frequency of self-confidence would remain stable.

The Competitive Trait Anxiety Inventory-2 (CTAI-2) was used to test the hypotheses. This scale was developed as a measure of how people normally feel as competition approaches. The scale was modified to measure the frequency and direction of the athletes’ anxiety responses.

The CTAI-2 was distributed to the athletes 1 week, 2 hours and 30 minutes prior to a competition/event. After collecting the data, the results were analyzed using MANOVA procedures. The results for the intensity of anxiety responses were significant (F (6, 97)=54.88, p<.01) meaning that somatic and cognitive anxiety increased across the three times, while self-confidence increased from 1 week to 2 hours prior to competition but decreased 30 minutes prior to competition. Furthermore, the MANOVA for the frequency of anxiety responses was significant (F (6, 97)=33.05, p<.01). More specifically, cognitive and somatic anxiety increased from 1 week to 2 hours and then to 30 minutes before the competition. Frequency of self-confidence only increased from 1 week to 2 hours. Finally, MANOVA results revealed no differences in the direction of cognitive and somatic anxiety (F(4,99)=3.90, p<.01).

What these results suggest is that athletes with disability of the lower limbs have increases in the intensity and frequency of anxiety responses as competition approaches. Similar patterns of anxiety are evident in studies of able-bodied athletes. The authors conclude by suggesting that future studies should consider the individual differences in the interpretation of these responses to competition because some athletes might perceive the anxiety to be facilitative to performance, whereas others may consider it to be debilitative. Having knowledge of these individual differences may also facilitate the creation of an individualized pre-performance routine that can be used to control negative responses and increase positive responses to the stress associated with competition.

Clark, R.A., & Sachs, M.L. (1991). Challenges and opportunities in psychological skills training in deaf athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 5, 392-398.

Using the Psychological Skills Inventory for Sports (PSIS), the researchers of this study analyzed the psychological skills of deaf athletes. The participants in this study were 29 females attending a National Deaf Volleyball Tournament. The participants had the option of taking the PSIS in its original English form or in a videotaped American Sign Language (ASL) version. The PSIS is a 45 item questionnaire that measures six psychological skills that relate to performance: (a) anxiety; (b) concentration; (c) confidence; (d) mental preparation; (e) motivation; and (f) team work. Unfortunately, the authors did not describe how the data were analyzed, and did not present a table of results. They simply emphasized that the athletes in this study were similar to other athletes who have taken the PSIS. The only difference was that the athletes in this study had a communication disability that should be considered when working with athletes who are hard of hearing.

The authors conclude by offering some suggestions to sport psychologists who are interested in working with athletes who are deaf. For example, it is important to make eye contact, to understand the different types of communication that are available to athletes who are deaf, to use facial expression and body language during communication, to speak clearly and slowly, and to use visual communication as much as possible (chalk board, overhead, etc.). Aside from these considerations, it is more than likely that athletes who are deaf will benefit from the same psychological techniques used with athletes who are not deaf.

Masters, K.S., Wittig, A.F., Scallen, S.F., & Shurr, K.T. (1995). The effects of training and competition on mood state and anxiety among elite athletes with cerebral palsy. Palaestra, 47-52.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of training and competition on the mood state and anxiety of 22 elite track athletes and swimmers with cerebral palsy or brain trauma disability. Three questionnaires were used to examine the purpose of this study: (a) the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI); (b) the Profile of Mood States (POMS); and (c) the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2). The study took place during a one week training camp and then again at a national competition. The questionnaires were distributed to the athletes on four times during each event.

The results of this study indicate that tension (F[3,57] = 2.89, p<.043) and state anxiety (F[3,57] = 3.62, p<.018) all decreased significantly during the training camp but increased significantly during the competition. Similar, yet insignificant results were reported for cognitive and somatic anxiety, as well as for anger. The opposite was found for self-confidence (F[3,57] = 3.34, p<.025) which increased during the training camp, but decreased during the competition. Results from the POMS indicated the existence of the Iceberg Profile for these athletes. The Iceberg Profile has been shown to represent a "distinct" athletic personality in able-bodied athletes. This personality is characterized by below average levels of tension, depression, anger fatigue, and confusion, with higher than average levels of vigor.

These results are similar to results founds by studies such as this conducted with able-bodied athletes. Athletes with cerebral palsy and brain trauma disability seem to experience normal psychological responses to competition and training. Furthermore, these results exemplify the need for coaches to expand the programs of athletes with disabilities so they include strategies to deal with these psychological changes. Incorporating regular sessions with sport psychologists would be one way to do this. This may also facilitate a healthy sport experience for these athletes.

Perrault, S., & Marisi, D.Q. (1997). A test of multidimensional anxiety theory with male wheelchair basketball players. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 14, 108-118.

The purpose of this study was to determine if the Multidimensional Anxiety Theory (MAT) was applicable to male wheelchair basketball players. The MAT, which is based on the inverted-U hypothesis, proposes that three types of anxiety are related to performance. These are cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and state self-confidence. The authors hypothesized: (a) that high level of cognitive anxiety will be inversely related to performance; (b) state self-confidence is positively related to performance; and (c) that support for the inverted-U hypothesis will be obtained whereby high and low level of arousal will be negatively related to performance with an optimal performance occurring with an intermediate level of arousal.

To test the three hypotheses, 37 wheelchair basketball players completed the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-II on three occasions - each time before a tournament. Performance was measured by means of a formula created to test basketball performance (taking into account all aspects of basketball playing, not just points scored). After arranging each individual’s CSAI-II score from highest to lowest, the authors were able to conclude that three separate states of anxiety existed for these basketball players. A polynomial trend analysis was conducted to test the three hypotheses. All linear and quadratic trends were nonsignificant, and as a result, the researchers were unable to provide evidence in support of the MAT.

In response to these anomalous findings, the authors argue that the hypotheses were not supported because of the nature of the game of basketball. That is, state anxiety can frequently change during a basketball game because there are many different aspects of the game. As such, future studies of this nature may be more successful if they use an isolated task as a measure of performance, or even a subjective measure of performance.

Previous studies with able-bodied athletes have been successful at supporting the MAT. The authors suggest that this theory might not be as relevant with athletes who have physical disabilities because, in many cases, these athletes have had experienced previous life trauma that may make them better at handling difficult situations. These coping skills may be used by athletes with physical disabilities to deal with the anxiety associated with performance.

Screws, D.P., & Surburg, P. (1997). Motor performance of children with mild mental disabilities after using mental imagery. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 14, 119-130.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects that mental imagery can have on the performance of cognitive (peg board) and motor (pursuit rotor) task performed by children aged 11 to 13 with mild mental retardation. This study tested three hypotheses: (a) a physical practice group would exhibit significant improvement on skill performance of both tasks; (b) a control group would not significantly improve on either task; and (c) the imagery group would significantly improve on the cognitive task. Following a performance pretest, thirty subjects were assigned to one of three groups for each task: (a) a physical practice group; (b) a control group; (c) an imagery group. Each group participated in eight sessions. After the completion of the eight sessions, all subjects were post-tested for performance on both the cognitive and motor tasks.

Data was analyzed using a 3 x 2 x 10 ANOVA, with alpha set at .05. For the peg board task, the imagery and practice groups improved from pretest to posttest, while the control group did not improve. The physical practice group improved more than the imagery group which improved more than the control group.

Similar results were reported for the pursuit rotor task. The physical group and the imagery group significantly improved from pretest to posttest while the control group did not improve from pre to posttest. Again, posttest scores revealed significant differences between the three groups, but these differences were only significant between the physical and control groups.

The results of this study support the three hypotheses presented at the beginning of the study. The authors conclude by noting that "thinking through the task may permit both imagery groups to attend to the critical cues of the task, emphasize the cognitive components and the group-related information about the task, which allows the learner to identify a feasible action plan" (p. 127). These results are similar to those found by individuals who are not disabled -- in fact, they support the conclusion made by Feltz and Landers (1983) in their meta-analysis of the motor performance and mental imagery literature.

Travis, C.A., & Sachs, M.L. (1991). Applied sport psychology and persons with mental disabilities. The Sport Psychologist, 5, 382-391.

This paper examines the issues associated with enhancing the performance and quality of the sport experience for persons with cognitive disabilities. It is important to explore these issues because the cognitive delays associated with mental retardation pose particular challenges to the sport psychologist.

At the time this paper was written, the authors were unable to locate any type of paper related to the application of sport psychology for performance enhancement to athletes with cognitive delays. However, techniques such as relaxation and imagery have been successfully used outside of the sport realm. The authors contend that these techniques and other sport psychological techniques can be used to enhance the self-esteem, self-reliance, and independence of athletes with developmental disabilities.

The authors conclude the article with a case study of a 28 year old Special Olympic swimmer. A sport psychologist was brought in to visit with this swimmer because she was having problems with motivation at practice, anxiety about performance, was self-critical, and felt tense during pressure situations. The sport psychologist met with the swimmer on 5 occasions. He felt it was important during the first session to develop trust and rapport with the athlete. Once some trust was established, he was able to discern that the swimmer was afraid of competition because she feared her failure would result in a breaking of the relationship she had with her coach -- that her failure would cause her coach to be angry. The sport psychologist decided that progressive relaxation training would be suited for this athlete to help her release her tension during competition. It was a challenge for the psychologist to get the swimmer to understand the difference between the feelings of relaxation and tension. He used the cue word "warmth" to help her understand the feeling of relaxation. To promote relaxation, the psychologist also used a cue card that had her favorite color on it.

Unfortunately, after 5 sessions the swimmer did not return to practice or to swimming because of a death in the family. The authors conclude this paper with some suggestions on how to deal effectively as sport psychologists with athletes with cognitive delays: (a) develop rapport and trust; (b) work with the athlete on his/her own level of communication; (c) solicit help from parents, siblings and case managers; and (d) ensure that all information is well understood by the athlete.

Yun, J., & Ulrich, D.A. (1997). Perceived and actual physical competence in children with mild mental retardation. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 14, 285-297.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between actual competence and perceived competence in 109 children aged 7 to 12 with mild mental retardation. Perceived competence can be defined as one’s belief in his/her ability to be successful at certain skills. It is important to study perceived competence because this variable has been positively linked to participation motivation and performance in able-bodied athletes.

The PSPPCCMR was used to measure perceived competence. This is a pictorial scale that is used by asking the children to identify a picture that most resembles their perceived ability to complete motor skills. The ten motor skills used in this study included the standing long jump, running, batting a tossed ball, shooting a basketball, kicking, throwing, skipping, catching, jumping rope, and dribbling a ball. Actual physical competence, which was assessed after the perceived competence test, was measured by success or failure at each of the ten motor tasks.

Pearson’s correlation coefficient revealed that there was no relationship between perceived and actual competence (r=.00, p>.05). Only running, skipping, jumping rope and dribbling had low, positive relationships. These results suggest that it is possible that children with MMR may not be at a high enough cognitive level to make judgments about their abilities to be successful at motor tasks. It is possible that this type of cognitive functioning emerges with age, so that as children with MMR get older, their self-evaluations become more accurate.

To test this, the researchers also considered the effect of age on the relationship between perceived and actual competence. A MANOVA test revealed an interaction between age and gender on perceived competence (F (5, 97)=3.52, p<.01). Further analysis revealed that as children with MMR get older, their perceived competence decreases. That is, 7 year old males and females had the highest level of perceived competence. This finding is consistent with results from similar studies with able-bodied children.

Asken, M.J. (1991). The challenge of the physically challenged: Delivering sport psychology services to physically disabled athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 5, 370-381.

The author begins this article by asserting importance of acknowledging the talents and efforts of athletes with physical disabilities. Athletes with disabilities do not participate in sport solely for the purposes of rehabilitation; rather, they are in sports for the competition. Their reasons for participation often do not differ from the participation motives reported by able-bodied athletes.

Previous studies have shown that athletes with disabilities show similar psychological profiles to able-bodied athletes. It is thus logical to assume that athletes with disabilities would benefit from the same psychological interventions that have been developed for able-bodied athletes. Some of these techniques include arousal control, concentration skills training, goal setting, self-talk, negative thought stopping, and general confidence enhancement. However before working with the athlete who has a physical disability, the sport psychologist must consider certain issues.

First, it is important for the sport psychologist to have a working knowledge of the nature of the client’s disability. The sport psychologist must have an understanding of the "psychology of physical disability" because the trauma of incurring a disability may bring about special psychological needs for these athletes. In addition, according to Asken, it is important that the sport psychologist understand the altered physiological responses that could arise because of the disability.

From a psychological point of view, the sport psychologist interested in working with athletes with physical disabilities should be aware that they may have reasons for competing that differ from those of able-bodied athletes. Asken suggests that athletes with disabilities could be motivated by a need for rehabilitation or a need to prove competence. Sport may even be used as a psychological coping mechanism. Whatever the case, the sport psychologist should not assume that athletes with disabilities compete in sports for the same reasons given by able-bodied athletes. The psychologist must be aware of the each athlete’s reason for participation in sport.

Furthermore, it is important for the sport psychologist to understand that some unique performance problems could arise a result of a specific disability. Asken provided an example of an athlete with cerebral palsy who developed anxiety attacks during competition. In able-bodied athletes, it is likely that such anxiety would result because of pressure associated with competition. However, for this athlete, the attacks were the result of anxiety about spasticity due to the cerebral palsy. It is thus imperative that the sport psychologist have a medical understanding of physical disabilities as they may be the cause of anxiety, as opposed to competition being the cause.

It is also important for the sport psychologist to realize that sports for the disabled are quite different from sport for the able-bodied (i.e., high school, college sports). For example, the general public lacks an awarness about the existence of sport programs for the disabled. In addition, the sport psychologist must learn to be comfortable around athletes who use prosthetics, who have amputations, who have spastic movements, or who have bowel and bladder incontinence. And, finally, the psychologist should examine his/her motivations for wanting to work with athletes who are physically disabled.

In sum, it appears that the sport psychologist who desires to work with athletes with disabilities must go out of his/her way to become knowledgeable about physical disabilities. The challenge working here rests in the sport psychologist's ability to "implement services in an underdeveloped, underserved, and essentially uncharted area" (p. 380).

Gibbons, S.L., & Bushakra, F.B. (1989). Effects of a Special Olympics participation on the perceived competence and social acceptance of mentally retarded children. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 6, 40-51.

Participation in sports by individuals with developmental disability can lead to increases in self-esteem, independence and improved physical fitness. The purpose of this study was to test this assertion by examining the effects of competition on the perceived competence and social acceptance of children participating in the Special Olympics.

Twenty-four children with developmental delays (IQ’s between 48 to 70) aged between 9 and 13 participated in this study. The authors used a pre-test, post-test design to examine the hypothesis. Participants were divided into two groups: a Special Olympic participant group and a nonparticipant group. All participants completed the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children (PSPCSAYC) during the pre-test and the post-test.

Barlett’s test for homogeneity of variance produced nonsignificant results, meaning that the assumption of homogeneity of variance was not violated. A one-way MANOVA was conducted to examine differences between participants and nonparticipants for perceived competence and social acceptance. Results of this analysis were significant (F[4,43]=59.03, p<.001). Further analysis revealed that participants in the Special Olympics showed more gains in perceived competence and social acceptance from pre-test to post-test when compared to nonparticipants. Therefore, the authors’ hypothesis was supported.

The results of this study are positive and are similar to those reported by other studies employing Harter’s pictorial scale. Participation in sports by individuals with developmental disabilities can definitely be a positive experience. These results may be a reflection of the Special Olympic philosophy which de-emphasizes competition and focuses on fun and participation. The authors suggest that future studies should examine the long-term effects of competition on perceived competence. Are the changes stable, or are they simply a short-term function of competition?

Greenwood, C.M., & Dzewaltowski, D.A. (1990). Self-efficacy and psychological well-being of wheelchair tennis participants and wheelchair nontennis participants. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 7, 12-21.

Results from previous research studies reveal that having high self-efficacy in one domain of motor performance often results in high physical self-efficacy in general. This general physical self-efficacy is important because it promotes participation, persistence, and perseverance at motor tasks. Those with low physical self-efficacy often do not attempt to complete motor tasks, or feel anxious when required to complete motor tasks. Participation in sports has also been linked to positive psychological well being. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the psychological well-being and self-efficacy of wheelchair sports participants and nonparticipants.

Participants in this study were 87 male and female elite wheelchair tennis participants and 40 individuals who use wheelchairs. The researcher developed two questionnaires as measures of self-efficacy. The first was designed to measure the participants’ self-efficacy expectations toward playing tennis and the second measured the participants’ self-efficacy toward performing daily wheelchair mobility tasks. The questionnaires asked participants to rate on a scale ranging from 0 (low efficacy) to 100 (high efficacy) their efficacy at completing various tasks (either tennis or general mobility tasks). In addition, the participants completed the Profile of Mood States (POMS) to assess their psychological well-being.

Results of this study revealed significant differences between the two groups on the each of the three measures (F [8, 118]=39.53, p<.001). More specifically, wheelchair tennis participants had higher self-efficacy for completing various tennis tasks as well as more self-efficacy for completing general wheelchair mobility tasks. Furthermore, the psychological profile of the tennis participants was more similar to the Iceberg Profile when compared to the nonparticipants. Finally, the author notes that self-efficacy and psychological well-being were positively correlated. In other words, having high self-efficacy associated with sports participation resulted in a more positive mood. Therefore, participation in tennis for these individuals who use wheelchairs may improve their quality of life. It can be concluded that participation in sports for individuals with disabilities can be useful tool for improving general contentment with life.

Henschen, K., Horvat, M., & French, R. (1984). A visual comparison of psychological profiles between able-bodied and wheelchair athletes. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 1, 118-124.

In order to have a successful and positive sport experience, all athletes must consider the psychological aspects of competition. Certain psychological factors can both hinder and facilitate performance. Some of these that are considered in the sport psychology literature are self-confidence, anxiety, locus of control, and ability to use imagery, goal-setting, and self-talk techniques. The ability of all elite athletes to control the psychological factors and implement the techniques often separates the successful athlete from the unsuccessful athlete.

The purpose of this study was to compare the psychological profiles of elite male wheelchair athletes with the psychological profiles of able-bodied athletes. The authors hypothesized that the male wheelchair athletes would exhibit similar profiles as have been demonstrated in able-bodied athletes. Participants in this study were 33 male wheelchair athletes competing in track and field events. They were between the ages of 18 and 35.

To test the hypothesis, all participants completed the Profile of Mood States (POMS) and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) one hour prior to the participants’ first event. The data were analyzed visually. In other words, results for each subscale of the POMS were calculated then graphed and compared with results from previous studies using able-bodied athletes. Means and standard deviations were calculated for the responses on the STAI.

Consistent with previous studies, results revealed the existence of the Iceberg Profile. When compared with the profile of male and female able-bodied athletes, it seems that athletes who use wheelchairs possess a stronger profile, where they are higher on vigor and lower on the tension, anger, depression, fatigue, and confusion scales. This trend is also evident when compared to athletes from individual sports (running, wrestling, and crew), with one exception -- wrestlers were lower on confusion than all other sport participants.

These results demonstrate that sports for athletes who use wheelchairs promote positive well-being. Results of studies examining the psychological effects of sports for individuals with disabilities continually demonstrate that these athletes satisfied and well adjusted. The results from this study suggest that athletes who use wheelchairs depict a stronger psychological profile when compared to the able-bodied athletic population. The authors suggest that these results be used to implement a psychological skills training program designed to foster this type of profile, in an attempt to foster successful performances and results at competition.

Paulsen, P., French, R., & Sherrill, C.(1990). Comparison of wheelchair athletes and nonathletes on selected mood states. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 71, 1160-1162.

This purpose of this study was to compare the mood states of wheelchair athletes and nonathletes. It is necessary to conduct a study such as this to determine if participation in sports influences positive mental health for individuals who use wheelchairs.

The Profile of Mood States (POMS) was administered to 26 athletes and 28 nonathletes who use wheelchairs. The participants' ages ranged from 17 to 50 years. The authors chose to use the POMS because previous studies with able-bodied athletes suggest the presence of an iceberg profile where athletes are higher on vigor and lower on tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion when compared to nonathletes. The results of this study reveal the presence of the iceberg profile for both the athletes and nonathletes. The only difference between the two groups existed on the depression subscale of the POMS. That is, the athletes scored lower on depression than did the nonathletes.

The results of this study suggest that the participants in this study demonstrate similar mood states, and this is not affected by participation in sports. The authors suggest this to be the case because it is likely that these participants have all had to overcome adverse situations. Having had to cope with a disability may help all individuals who use wheelchairs to develop positive mental health.

Porretta, D.L., Moore, W., & Sappenfield, C. (1992). Situational anxiety in Special Olympics athletes. Palaestra, 8, 46-50.

The purpose of this study is to examine the state-anxiety of youth Special Olympic participants. All 39 participants in the study were between 12 and 18 years of age and all were diagnosed with mild mental retardation, having IQ’s ranging from 56 to 70. The authors hypothesized that the participants in this study would have increases in state-anxiety when placed in a competitive setting. These results have been observed in athletes without developmental disability.

To test the hypothesis, the researchers administered the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC) to the participants on three occasions: (a) three weeks prior to the competition (while athletes were in training); (b) one week prior to competition; and (c) 10 to 15min before starting an event. The coaches read the questions to the participants. Performance was also measured by performance in the individual events.

Pearson’s Correlation revealed a low, nonsignificant correlation between IQ and state-anxiety (r=.34). In addition, there were no significant gender differences in training or competitive state anxiety. Furthermore, no significant differences existed in state anxiety during training or during competition. The authors were unable to provide evidence in support of their assertion that state-anxiety increases in the face of competition. Examination of the means and standard deviations revealed that participants’ scores on the STAIC were similar to the STAIC scores for athletes without developmental delay.

The results of this study suggest that participation in local Special Olympics competition does not evoke competitive state-anxiety responses. The Special Olympics competitions are organized so they de-emphasize competition and focus on fun, inclusion, and ability. This type of competition may not be viewed by its participants as threatening, and as a result, anxiety does not factor in to competition. These results might change if the researchers had used a state-anxiety instrument developed specifically for athletes with developmental delays. Furthermore, the authors suggest that future studies should replicate this study with national or international Special Olympic participants. It may be that the elite level competitors may exhibit more anxiety than those competing at the local level. In conclusion then, it may not be necessary to implement sport psychology techniques designed to control anxiety of Special Olympians participating at the local level.

Shapiro, D.R., & Dummer, G.M. (1998). Perceived and actual basketball competence of adolescent males with mild mental retardation. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 15, 179-190.

Harter’s theory of competence motivation suggests that there is a positive correlation between actual competence and perceived competence. From a sport psychology point of view, it is important to examine these constructs because of the effects that perceived competence can have on persistence at mastering a skill. Those exhibiting a high correlation between actual competence and physical competence tend to spend more time attempting to master a task and have greater enjoyment and satisfaction attempting the task.

The purpose of this study was to test this hypothesis with males aged 12 to 15 who were diagnosed with mild mental retardation (MMR). Actual competence was tested by way of performance on selected basketball tasks (target for push pass, jump-and-reach task, speed dribble, and free throw). Perceived competence was analyzed by administering the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Basketball Competence.

Correlations of standardized Z-scores were obtained to determine the relationship between perceived and actual competence. Results revealed a moderate, positive relationship between these two variables (r=.46, p=.01). These results suggest that adolescent males with MMR are aware of their abilities to complete certain basketball tasks. The individual correlations for the push pass, jump and reach, and free throw tasks were low to moderate, all explaining between 14 and 18% of the variance. The speed dribble task only explained 4% of the variance in perceived competence, but the authors attribute this low score to problems with the questionnaire.

Valliant, P.M, Bezzubyk, I., Daley, L., & Asu, M.E. (1985). Psychological impact of sport on disabled. Psychological Reports, 56, 923-929.

The purpose of this study was to analyze the locus of control and self-esteem of 161 physically disabled athletes and nonathletes in an attempt to determine the effects of sports participation. Locus of control can be either internal or external and is defined as the tendency for an individual to perceive outcomes to be within their control (internal locus of control) or out of their control (external locus of control).

The participants in this study competed the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory and the Internal-External Scale. The scores for athletes and nonathletes were compared using ANOVA and Chi Square analysis. Results of the ANOVA revealed that there are significant differences between athletes and nonathletes in locus of control (F[1, 125]=2.92, p=.05) and in self-esteem (F[1,125]=3.92, p=.005). It seems that athletes are more external in their attributions and have higher self-esteem than disabled nonathletes. Chi square analysis revealed that athletes who are physically impaired are happier (X²= 19.23, p=.001) and more satisfied (X² = 21.17, p=.001) than individuals with physical disabilities who do not participate in sports. Finally, the athletes in this study had significantly more education than the nonathletes.

These results suggest participation in sports seems to enhance the quality of life for individuals with physical disabilities. Athletes are happier, more satisfied, more educated and have higher self-esteem than nonathletes. Therefore, sports participation can be a positive influence for individuals with physical disabilities.

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