Reasons for Participating in Sports

Annette Jennings ©1997

This section consists of a brief overview of motives for participating in disability sport, followed by abstracts related to this topic. Relevant references and web sites are listed at the end of this section.

Topic Overview

Sport has received a considerable amount of research in the recent years. One of the focus areas has been on sport socialization, or the reasons one might participate in sports.

Research by Greensdorfer and Ewing (1981) showed a direct relationship between sports participation and the influence the athletes received from their parents. Youths stated that their reasons for participating were to improve skills, have a challenge, fun, and to be physically fit (Gill, Gross, Huddleston, 1983). Sports participation was also examined and shown to be influenced by one's social class (Hasbrook, 1987). Social class often set the standard for the opportunities youths received to participate.

People who have a disability may experience life in different ways than those who do not have a disability, so it is possible that they may be socialized into sport differently than an able-bodied athlete? Understanding sport participation motives of people with a disability is important to coaches, recreation professionals, adapted physical education teachers, and sports psychologists, as well as the athlete. If research can help educate these professionals, understanding the athlete and working with them may become an easier task than in the past.

Participant motives may vary depending upon the disability.

The reasons for participating must not be overlooked or generalized into the able-bodied athlete population. The studies show there is a true difference between the reasons for participation in able-bodied athletes and the athletes with disabilities. Once again, we still cannot generalize that all athletes with disabilities were socialized into sport the same way. There are obvious differences between different
disabilities, age and gender of the athletes. Any person who is considered a "socializing agent" (one who is influential on a participant to become involved), needs to educate themselves about their athlete. The more they learn about the socialization process or athletes with disabilities, the better they might be able to understand and support their participant and their involvement into sport. The abstracts that follow can be a step toward educating anyone involved in disability sports.

Abstracts

Zoerink, D.A. (1992). Exploring sport socialization environments of persons with orthopedic disabilities. Palaestra, 8, 38-44.

Research suggests that able-bodied athletes are socialized into sports mainly by family, school, and peers. Greendorfer’s and Lewko’s (1978) study showed significant socializing agents to be the parents, mainly the father for both genders. Zoerink notes that children with disabilities spend a large amount of time in institutional environments and that the socializing agents into sports are different from the able-bodied athletes. The purpose of this study was to identify the differences in sport socialization environments of athletes with congenital orthopedic disabilities. The hypothesis was that families had less influence on those with congential disabilities than those with acquired disabilities.

Fifty males and 11 female athletes who participated in wheelchair athletic games of a midwestern state were the subjects for this study. Fifteen subjects described themselves as having congenital disabilities; the rest had acquired orthopedic disabilities. Each subject completed a three-part questionnaire used in other studies of sports socialization (Gavron, 1989). In addition to the questionnaire, subjects were asked to indicate one person most responsible for them becoming involved in sport. Part II of the study asked about their past participation in sport before age 13 and during the ages of 13 and 18. The first 24 items addressed the issues of family involvement in sports, parental expectancies, and encouragement by parents. All items were scored on a 5 point Likert scale. Five would indicate a highly positive response and 1 would indicate a highly negative response. Results indicated first that there wasn’t a significant difference in results when comparing gender. Those with congenital disabilities were influenced by physical therapists (20%), family members (20%) and other athletes with disabilities (20%). Athletes with acquired disabilities selected themselves (24%) as the most responsible agents in becoming involved in sports. Those with acquired injuries also selected current athletes with disabilities (17%) and therapists (11%) as influential. Many athletes with acquired disabilities also stated they competed in sport before the age 13 and before their injury. In comparing parental influence between the congenital and acquired disabled athletes, congenital indicated their parents were not involved very much. Athletes with acquired disabilities received much encouragement from family than athletes with congenital disabilities.

To conclude, although the family is involved in much of the influence and reasons for becoming involved in sports in able-bodied athletes, the focus for disabled athletes tend to be around services provided by others. Therapists and other disabled athletes are highly influential on this group of athletes. This only supports the need to push our children or adults with disabilities to become involved in societies activities. This involvement gives the chance for meeting new people and experiencing new activities.

Furst, D. M., Ferr, T., & Megginson, N. (1993). Motivation of disabled athletes to participate in triathlons. Psychological Reports, 17, 403-406.

The purpose of this study was to study the reasons wheelchair triathletes participate in their sport. Subjects were 25 participants in the Fifth National Triathlon for the Physically Challenged. Participants all experienced acquired spinal cord injuries. A questionnaire containing open and closed questions about their reasons for participating was distributed. Twenty-five surveys were handed out and 22 were returned. Results described the respondents as being physically active in a variety of sports before the injury. Running, swimming and basketball were the sports most often mentioned that they played in prior to injury. Athletes also indicated that they started exercising post injury as soon as medically allowed.

The first part of the investigation tried to identify the primary influence that motivated the athletes to participate regularly. They ranked other disabled athletes as the primary motivator. Prior experience or participation was second. Friends and therapists were next and health concerns also were influential. Motivating factors in training specifically for a sport activity defined three major influencing factors. Other disabled athletes, themselves, and adapted physical education specialists were the three. The primary reason for competing in any sport activity was for fun, health factors, love of competition and socializing. These findings were also true of able-bodied athletes.

To conclude, disabled individuals influence newly disabled persons. The reasons to participate and exercise on a regular basis is highly related to the interaction and encouragement by other peers that are disabled. People who work with these new disabled athletes should take the time to get these newly disabled persons involved and exposed to others who are involved in the athletic field of disabled sports.

Williams, T. (1994). Disability sport socialization and identity construction. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 11, 14-31.

Many studies have been done on sport socialization of athletes with disabilities. The purpose of this reading was to add to the research in this specialized area. The research is concerned with individuals with disabilities and acquiring their sporting identities. Much of the research identifies with the theoretical theme of structural-functionalism. Structural functionalism is important in maintaining the social status-quo. Athletes learn their disability and its sport role in society. The social structural building is built on three elements. They are significant others, socialization situations, and personal attributes. Sports socialization of athletes with disabilities is highly influenced by the relationship disabled persons maintain with others who have disabilities. Many studies reviewed in this article examined this relationship. Blind athletes find their experiences to be more closely related to the experiences they have with their teachers and peers than to other influences. Family was the least important. Deaf athletes gave recognition to schools and to deaf acquaintances. Socializing agents for those with spinal-cord injuries were primarily to sports clubs, as well as to segregated and integrated classes in school. Socializing situations for persons with vision impairments included residential schools, home and neighborhood and mainstream physical education. Deaf athletes are socialized mainly in deaf settings (deaf schools and sporting events).

Many of these studies are characterized by inaccuracies and other threats to validity. Studies often fail to identify gender, age, and acquired or congenital differences in athletes. Another problem refers back again to the structural-functional theme. Many studies asked athletes who influences them. This initializes the idea that athletes have to have someone who has influenced them. This doesn’t let the athlete decide on their own who or what the initializing agent was. Lastly, environment influences are often overlooked. Culture, financial means, access to equipment, and other environmental influences may be major factors associated with sports involvement.

Studies of sports socialization in disability sport are obviously in the beginning stages. More research with better descriptive data is essential to enhancing the research efforts to disability sports.

Sherrill, C., Pope, C., & Arnhold, R. (1986). Sport socialization of blind athletes: An exploratory study. Journal of Visual Impairments and Blindness, 80, 740-744.

According to this study, only 1% of the eligible blind population competes in sports conducted by the USABA (United States Association for Blind Athletes). Sports involvement is often related to one’s social environment. These factors include family, school, church friends, peers, media and sports organizations. The purpose of the study was to investigate the reasons why blind athletes became involved in national competitions and to discuss these findings in light of what is known about sighted athletes.

The study included 303 visually impaired athletes who competed in the sixth national USABA games. The study tried to obtain a true sample from all categories of sex, age and visual classifications. After interviewing 303 athletes, 133 of the participants were chosen to continue in the study. Subjects were interviewed individually during their free time at the USABA meet. Interviews required an average of 40 minutes. In general the results showed that socialization into sports was most influenced by physical education teachers and coaches. This is quite different from the research done on sighted athletes. Sighted athletes weigh their influence highly on family, especially the father.

In conclusion, reasons for participating in sports of the USABA athletes are different than the present stated research of the sighted athletes. Notably this is in the area of home and family. Visually impaired find a greater relationship between school environment and teacher than to the family. More research is essential to develop a more visually impaired individual to participate in any kind of exercise or sport activity.

Stewart, D. A., Robinson, J., & McCarthy, D. (1991). Participation in deaf sport: Characteristics of elite deaf athletes. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 8, 136-145.

The purpose of this research was to compare the sport socialization characteristics of 15 male and 6 female members of the Canadian team competing at the 1989 New Zealand World Games for the Deaf (current sample) to the personal characteristics of a group of deaf sports directors (previous sample surveyed by Stewart, 1988).

The survey used in both studies was designed to look at factors that influence participation in deaf sports, as well as obtain information about personal/demographic characteristics. Members of the World Games Sample also completed personal interviews in which their responses were recorded.

Results showed that most athletes in the World Games sample (90.4%) had attended hearing schools; whereas, 86.7% of the deaf sports directors had attended deaf schools. Almost all of the subjects in this study indicated that they were initiated into deaf sports during their school years. The directors stated they were introduced and influenced while attending schools for the deaf; whereas, most of the athletes attended mainstreamed hearing schools.

The most influential socializing force into deaf sports for both groups was other deaf individuals (76.2% for directors and 52.4% for athletes); however, members of the athlete sample were also influenced by their hearing peers. Other information received showed that deaf athletes preferred to compete with other deaf teams (100% for directors and 57.2% for athletes). The benefits they state they receive are social benefits, opportunities to increase fitness, enjoyment, communication and a positive experience involving deafness.

With more information on the relationship of sport participation and deaf athletes, competitors will be lead to a better understanding of each other and the sports sociology of deaf sports.

Gill, D. L., Gross, J. B., & Huddleston, S. (1983). Participation motivation in youth sports. International Journal of Sports Psychology, 14, 1-14.

Youth sport is popular in North America. The purpose of this study was to investigate the participation motivation of youth and the sports they participate in. Subjects included children who participated at three one-week sessions of the Iowa Summer Sports School. A participation motivation questionnaire was developed based on information from two pilot projects and administered to these participants at the summer session. The sample 720 boys and 418 girls who participated in a wide range of sports. The questionnaire consisted of a list of 30 possible reasons for participating in sports. Respondents reported if the statement was important (1), somewhat important (2), or not important at all (3) for participating in sport. Mean ratings were calculated and analyzed.

Results showed that boys gave improved skills as being the highest reason for sports participation. The next highest reasons were for fun, learning new skills, challenge and being physically fit. Girls also rated improving skill to be the most important participnat motive, with fun as second most important. They also felt like the challenge and being physically fit were important factors. The least important reasons were to get rid of energy, parent/close friends, travel, tension release, and to be popular.

This study was conducted among able-bodied children who participated in athletics. It clearly supports many other studies done of youth sports participation. The indication of improving skills and having fun are important to both girls and boys. Much should be done to include both genders in youth sports for their physical and social development.

Brasile, F., & Hedrick, B. (1991). A comparison of participation incentives between adult and youth wheelchair basketball players. Palaestra, 7, 40-46.

Early research showed that factors that motivate sport involvement include compensation, cooperation, being a champion, possession of victory, seeking risk and challenge, aggression, and escape. The purpose of this study was to find the importance placed upon various reasons for participation in wheelchair basketball by adults and youth participants. The first question to be answered in the research was the importance that adult and youth wheelchair basketball participants placed on reasons for participation in this activity. The second effort was to find the relationship between selected participant characteristics and participation factors.

The subjects in this study were 192 male and female adult and youth wheelchair basketball participants (88 adults with physical disabilities and 104 youth participants). The instrument used was the Participation Reasons Scale (PRS). This was a self-reporting, 26 item Likert-scale on which respondents were asked to rate the relative importance of incentives for participating in wheelchair basketball competition. They used a five point scale with "1" referring to least important and "5" as most important. The PRS was administered to adult male and female wheelchair basketball participants at the Mens’ and Womens’ National Wheelchair Basketball Tournament and to wheelchair basketball players from several reginal programs in the midwest states. It was also administered to participants in the Junior Basketball Tournament and the Junior National Wheelchair Basketball Tournament.

Results showed that items focusing on improving ability, offering challenges, testing against own standards, excitement, team interaction, and providing opportunities for exercise were all regarded as high incentives for participation. There were some notable differences between adult and youth participation motives. With questions pertaining to friends, peers, companionship, and feeling wanted or needed, youth scored much higher than did the adults. For the remaining questions, adults and youth seem to score quite similar for their reasons for participation. Overall the investigation showed the most important finding was that wheelchair basketball participants favored intrinsic, task-oriented motives.

Fung, L. (1992). Participation motives in competitive sports: A cross-cultural comparison. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 9, 114.122.

This article compared participation motives of elite male and female wheelchair athletes from the United States, Great Britain, and Japan. Subjects were 87 tetraplegic and paraplegic track athletes of both sexes who participated in the 1988 Paralympic Games in Seoul. The instrument used was a questionnaire containing 30 motive statements. These statements included the seven motive factors of fitness, team atmosphere, skill development, excitement and challenge, friendship, achievement and status, and energy release. Motive factors were rated on a scale from 1 to 7 (1 being the most important motive factor and 7 being the least important).

The data collection took place the day before the opening ceremonies of the Games. Great Britian and the U.S. teams agreed that the most important motivational factor was fitness. The Japanese male indicated skill to be most important while the Japanese female stated friends to be important.

The least motivating factor for both Great Britian and the U.S. was energy release and achievement. This was also the case for the female Japanese participants. The male Japanese showed being part of a team to be the least important.

Results were equivocal for other motivational factors. For example, improving skills was rated higher by Japanese athletes than by athletes from Great Britain and the U.S. Friends were mor important as a motive for sports participation among Japanese women than among Japanese men.

These results clearly show gender and cultural differences in motivational factors for participating in sports. There is a need for more collective work and comparative studies.

References

Coakley, J. (1994-1998). Sport in society. St. Louis: Times, Mirror/Mosby.

Greensdorfer, S. L., & Ewing, M. E. (1981). Race and gender differences in children's socialization into sport. Quest, 52, 301-310.

Hasbrook, C. A. (1987). The sport participation-social class relationship among a selected sample of female athletes. Sociology of Sport Journal, 4, 37-47.

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