Socialization, Retirement, and Sports

Mary Lou Schilling ©1997

This section consists of a brief overview of ways in which persons with a disability are socialized into sports, followed by abstracts related to this topic. Relevant references and web sites are listed at the end of this section.

Topic Overview

Socialization has been defined as a process by which individuals learn about their environment and/or culture, acquire the social characteristics of the culture, and engage with other members of the culture. Based on this definition socialization can have significant impact on life style, life choices, and perception of self related to a sport role identity. This is particularly the case when one explores the impact of sport participation on the life of a person with a disability. Participation in sport may initially occur secondary to its therapeutic or "wellness" value, but as individuals are socialized into the culture of sport it (the sport itself) becomes a critical component of the athlete's identity.

Motivation, participation, retirement, and sport

The literature typically approaches socialization by defining it to include motivation, participation, learning, and cultural influences. When looking at socialization from the motivational point of view, the research presents information regarding the value and/or outcomes of participation in sport. Values presented relating to socialization include the development of friendships and other psychological features of self esteem, self worth, coping, and stress management. This is particularly highlighted in the literature on retirement. Wheeler, et al., (1996) found that participants expressed both interpersonal and financial losses from their retirement from sport. The losses retirees identified include, but are not limited to, the loss of friendships and the loss of personal identity (that identify associated with sport participation). Martin (1996) articulates similar transition problems, noting that transition out of sport can impact personal identity, lifestyle and routine, and the athlete's social support systems. For the non-retired athlete, Blinde and McClung (1997) found that college students with physical disabilities identified expanded social interactions and the ability to initiate social activities as benefits of sport participation.

Social learning and sport

When evaluating socialization in sport, the literature often analyzes factors that offer instruction or prepare the participant for sport participation. The literature on individuals without disabilities would indicate that able-bodied athletes are influenced most by their family members. If parents and older siblings participate in sport then children and younger siblings are likely to become "socialized into sport." They will become active participants and will socialize with individuals who have similar interests and beliefs. On the other hand, the literature would indicate that this is not true of people with disabilities. Individuals with disabilities are not influenced to participate in sport secondary to family modeling, encouragement, and involvement in sport from their parents/siblings.

On the other hand, it is determined that athletes with a disability are more likely to be influenced by their coaches, other athletes, and sport scientists as compared to their families. Zoerink (1992) found that persons with acquired disability are influenced into sport participation by themselves, other people with disability, therapeutic recreation specialists, and physical therapists (in order of importance). He found comparable results when sampling persons with congenital impairments who indicated they were equally influenced by their physical therapists, family, and other athletes with disability. This is supported by Sherrill, et al., (1986) who reported that persons with cerebral palsy and visual impairments are influenced by physical education teachers, family, and friends. The literature to date suggests that, when compared to nondisabled individuals, persons with disability (especially those with acquired disability) are not significantly influenced by family to participate in sport activity.

Research on social learning also explores the environments or organizations under which the individual learns the readiness skills necessary to engage in sport. Socialization sport environments have been found to differ based on the disability group. Persons who are blind or visually impaired are prepared for sport within residential facilities. On the other hand, those individuals diagnosed as cerebral palsy are primarily introduced to sport and socialization of sport through nonschool sport clubs. Most interesting is the field research completed by Williams and Taylor (1994), who found that socialization in wheelchair racing began when the athlete investigated the purchase of a racing chair. Furthermore this research indicates that communication and socialization related to racing gossip, treatment of injuries, off-season training, safety, equipment, and the latest technologies occurred at the primary shop/company that sold racing chairs.

Stigmatization and stereotyping

No paper on sport socialization would be complete without a review of the stereotypes perceived by nondisabled persons toward persons with disability. Sherrill (1986) reports that most athletes with disabilities experience stigmatization, discrimination, and prejudice. These concepts are expressed by feelings of pity, exclusion and denying of needs, services, and resources. Sherrill (1986) also reports that people with disabilities perceive sports as a way of "fighting" this prejudice. Sport is therefore a means of demonstrating ability over disability.

Individuals with sensory impairments are reported to be least stigmatized, while people with mental retardation are most stigmatized. People persons with physical or sensory impairments often fear that the general public will generalize their stereotypes of persons with mental retardation onto them. Therefore, Sherrill (1986) reports that persons with physical disabilities sometimes express prejudice toward athletes that participate in the Special Olympics. This is one rationale given for the lack of desire to integrate disabled sports organizations and competitions.

Cultural significance

Individuals with disabilities have historically maintained pride in memberships given to disability specific sport clubs, programs, and organizations. Individuals with disabilities share commonalities related to abilities, needs, and conflicts that cannot be empathized by the nondisabled community. What if your primary mode of communication was American Sign Language...with whom would you interact? Imagine the difficulty associated with just a casual conversation. Similarly, consider how it might feel to be the only person of short stature amongst a group of able-bodied peers that are six feet or better in height. Now compound this visualization by placing this group on a basketball court.

Sport demonstrates the abilities of athletes with disability. It also provides opportunities for persons with disabilities to engage in activity with like skills, competencies, and restrictions. Sport offers an opportunity for persons with disability to learn more about each other, to socialize, and to learn social behaviors associated with a specific sport role. It offers cultural opportunities that may not be available in any other facet of an individuals life.

Retirement

The life of an elite athlete becomes enmeshed within the sport in which they compete. Sport becomes the athlete's social support system. Socialization and friendships are established within this sport of choice. The elite athletes identity is associated with the sport of choice. Research further suggests that elite athletes are perceived as the authorities in the sport, training techniques, sport history, and social protocols. Athletes involved in sport report fear in the loss of identity with retirement.

Retirement planning and preparation for the athlete with a disability is minimal if any. Adjustment to retirement differs based on the reason for retirement. If an athlete chooses to retire the adjustment is less psychosocially significant as compared to the person that is "forced" into retirement (secondary to injury). However, all elite athletes express feelings of shock, grief and sadness following retirement. Those persons that are injured report being "cheated" or "ripped off." They additionally indicate a desire to return to sport to complete "unfinished business." Many report loss of friendships, significant changes in daily routine, and a decline in physical health and wellness.

To ease the transition of retirement from sport the authors offer the following strategies:

Abstracts

Riggen, K., & Ulrich, D. (1993). The effects of sport participation on individuals with mental retardation. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 10, 42-51.

The purpose of this investigation was to compare the effect of basketball participation with the self-perception of competence in the physical and social domains. Individuals who participated in the traditional Special Olympics basketball program were compared to athletes within the unified Special Olympics basketball program. This data was also compared to a control group of persons with similar diagnostic features who did not participate in a basketball program. 75 males with mental retardation (I.Q range of 40 - 80), aged 18 - 40 participated in this study. Equal number of persons were engaged in either the unified program, traditional program or the control group with 25 subjects each.

A modified version of the Perceived Competence Scale for Children was utilized to pre-post test self-perceptions of physical and social abilities and general self-worth. Two assessments of physical competencies were utilized; these included the Basketball Skills Test of the Special Olympics and the one mile run-walk test (American alliance for health physical education recreation and dance). Data analysis was completed using a multivarate analysis of variance (MANOVA). A 3 x 2 group (unified, traditional, control) x time (pretest, posttest) MANOVA design with repeat measures was utilized to assess group differences for self-perceptions of social abilities, self-worth and physical competence. Alpha level set at the p<.05 level with no statistically significant differences noted between group or over time. However, the data did indicate an increase in social self-concept in the participants of the unified group following program participation however these results were not statistically significant. A 2 x 2 (time x group) MANOVA design with repeat measures was utilized to analyze difference in physical abilities (1 mile run) with no statistically significant results between groups. However, both groups showed significant increases in basketball skill performance following programmatic participation.

The authors suggested that such results may indicate that participants may not aware of improved basketball competencies. Additionally, the authors indicate concern that the application of improved endurance levels does not occur through sport participation with the assumption that basketball is not aerobic secondary to the stop start nature of the game. Therefore increased physical activity to enhance aerobic performance is recommended for increased cardiovascular health and wellness.

Zoerink, D. (1992). Exploring sport socialization environments of persons with orthopedic disabilities. Palaestra, 8(3), 38-44.

The purpose of this study was to determine if there were any differences in sport socialization environments of athletes with congenital versus athletes with acquired disability. It was hypothesized that athletes with congenital conditions were less influenced by family and home sport environments than those with acquired disability.

61 athletes participated in this study (50 male, 11 female). All athletes participated in wheelchair basketball and were either registered to participate in a state wheelchair basketball game or played in one of four basketball teams sanctioned by the National Wheelchair Basketball Association. 15 subjects had congenital disorders (7 females and 8 males) with mean age of 22 years. Of these, they reported to have participated in wheelchair sports for 3.3 years with 6.1 hours of weekly training. 46 individuals with acquired orthopedic disability (4 female and 42 male) with average age of 30.8 years. Of this group the mean length of time in sport participation was 3.8 years with an average play time of 7.9 hours weekly. A three-part questionnaire was distributed to participants. This instrument obtained perceived data regarding demographics, sport participation, parental sport behaviors and environmental conditions which influenced sport behaviors. Data was analyzed using chi-square and one-way ANOVA at the .05 level of significance. Variables compared were gender, activities during youth, attitudes toward competition, and family sport environment. No significance was noted with gender. Data regarding who influenced sport participation for persons with congenital disabilities include: physical therapists (20%), family (20%), and athletes with disabilities (20%). The athletes with acquired disability indicated that they were influenced first by themselves (at 24%), then by other athletes with disability (at 17%) and then by therapeutic recreation specialists (at 15%) and finally physical therapists (at 11%). No statistically significant results were noted with regard to parental influence, expectation and aspirations of sport participation.

Sherrill, C., Rainbolt, W., Montelione, T., & Pope, C. (1986). Sport socialization of blind and of cerebral palsied elite athletes. In C. Sherrill (Ed.), Sport and disabled athletes: The 1984 Olympic scientific congress proceedings (Volume 9, pp 189-195). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

The purpose of this investigation was to assess the impact of family and home on sport socialization. Adult athletes in the United States Association of Blind Athletes (USABA) and the National Association of Sports for Cerebral Palsy (NASCP) were interviewed at competitions in 1983. A total of 301 athletes were interviewed; 100 USABA athletes and 201 UASCP athletes. Approximately half of the athletes with cerebral palsy were wheelchair users (47%) and the remainder were ambulatory (53%). Comparatively, the athletes who were visually impaired were nearly equally distributed amongst the three levels of classification with 32% of those interviewed who were classified at B1 (totally blind - light perception), 30% classified as B2 (9/600 - 20/600), and 38% of those interviewed were classified at the B3 level of legal blindness (20/200).

Results indicate that athletes perceive parental influence in sport socialization was slightly neutral. Concluding that parents do not play an important or influential role in the sport socialization of athletes with cerebral palsy or blind. The authors report this is contrary to literature on able-bodied sport participation. Additional results indicated that both athletes with cerebral palsy and blind perceived themselves more athletic than their brothers and more active than their sisters. Athletes indicated they were most influenced by the following people to become interested in sports: physical education teacher (32%), family (25%), and friends (22%). Athletes who were blind indicated that the most influential was the physical education teacher, athletes who were non-ambulatory were more influenced by their peers/friends, and athletes who were ambulatory indicated they were most influenced by their families to participate in sports. Similarly, data compares the social situations in which sport was taught and the athletes with cerebral palsy were taught nonschool sport club for the disabled while the blind athletes were taught in a residential school. Based on the results the authors conclude that home and family are not significant in the sport socialization of individuals who are non-ambulatory and have diagnosis of cerebral palsy and athletes who are diagnosed as blind.

Brandmeyer, G., & McBee, G. F. (1986). Social status and athletic competition for the disabled athlete: The case of wheelchair road-racing. In C. Sherrill (Ed.), Sport and disabled athletes: The 1984 Olympic scientific congress proceedings (Volume 9, pp. 181-187). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

This paper presented a literature review on the impact of sport participation on the social status of the athlete with mobility impairments. Historically the author suggests that elite able-bodied athletes gain enhanced social control, esteem, prestige, and respect. This response is compared to the person with a disability who excels in road racing. Case studies of the successes of wheelchair athletes who have participated in the Boston marathon are presented. For the competitor, the social impact of wheelchair road racing includes heightened self esteem, identification as an athlete, and subcultural ethos. Social attitudinal barriers to participation are identified with concerns noted in safety, stigmatization and authenticity (is a wheelchair more like a bike). The authors report that the inclusion of wheelchair racing into the mainstream of able-bodied running competitions facilitates the normalization process; de-emphasizes "special" and emphasizes "ability".

Williams, T., & Taylor, D. (1994). Socialization, subculture, and wheelchair sport: The influence of peers in wheelchair racing. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 11, 416-428.

A field study (observation and participation) and survey approaches were utilized to determine the influence of peers as sport socialization agents in the wheelchair racing subculture. Elite and non-elite racers were compared. The researcher became an able bodied participant and observer in wheelchair racing for a duration of ten months. Documentation was maintained through the utilization of a diary technique. A mailed questionnaire was distributed to active wheelchair racers to supplement participant observations. The survey included such topics as health and fitness, socialization, participation, sport injuries, and demographics.

The authors suggest that the sport of wheelchair racing has its own subculture. Athletes generally train in isolation. However, the knowledge of training and racing is passed on from elite to non-elite athletes through the process of socialization. Per results of the survey, peers were the primary source of wheelchair racing information, regardless of whether the member was an elite or non-elite athlete. On the other hand, elite athletes did supplement this knowledge through the review of racing related journals/periodicals (i.e., Sports=n Spokes, cycling magazines, scientific journals). The author reports three levels of relationships between racing athletes; these include relationships between non-elite racers, relationships between elite racers, and relationships between elite and non-elite racers. Non-elite athletes exchange basic information regarding chair positioning, push techniques, and glove taping. Elite athletes share advanced knowledge and provide evaluative problem solving approaches. Elite athletes share knowledge of the sport and its subculture to non-elite athletes. Elite athletes have social status within this subculture. Non-elite athletes socialize more with elite athletes than with non-elite athletes.

Socialization begins when an athlete wishes to purchase a racing chair. In the United Kingdom the majority (95%) of chairs are sold by one company whose owner is an elite athlete with quadriplegia. This "shop" appears to be the "hub" of communication exchange for wheelchair racers. While visiting this shop elite racers exchange chairs and racing gossip with one another and with newcomers to the sport and its subculture. Other socialization opportunities occur on training weekends and at racing events. The focus of such interactions is on training techniques and frequencies, treatment of injuries, off-season training, safety equipment and latest technologies.

The author reports that the racing subculture has minimized the interest in coaching to assist in the development of racing techniques, strategies, sports medicine concerns and equipment.

Wheeler, G., Malone, L., VanVlack, S., Nelson, E., & Steadward, R. (1996). Retirement from disability sport: A pilot study. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 13, 382 - 399.

This is a descriptive qualitative study designed to examine the transition from competitive sport participation to retirement from sport. Characteristics of this transition and adjustment process were explored. Ten males and eight females with disabilities were interviewed. Ten subjects were permanently retired, four were considered "semi-retired" being forced to retire secondary to injury, and four were active in disability sports. Those interviewed were diagnosed as having cerebral palsy, poliomyelitis, spinal cord injured, spina bifida, and amputee and had competed in track and field, basketball, swimming, and cycling. All athletes were asked three primary questions related to their life as an athlete, factors that lead to retirement, how they felt about retirement, and their current lifestyle and health patterns.

All athletes indicated that sport played a significant role in adjusting or coping with their disability. Athletes discussed an intense commitment to sport reporting it as significant to their whole life. They reported participation in sport regardless of health/injury status and sometimes against physician advise. Retirement from sport was associated with both interpersonal and financial losses. Most significant was the decreased benefit of travel, loss of identify, loss of friendships, a "void," emptiness, or "blackhole," and loss of physical fitness. Permanently retired athletes indicated feelings of well-being associated with not having to train anymore, a sense of life style balance, relief, and an ability to move on with their lives. Individuals that were considered semi-retired identified feelings of frustration and anger associated with not being able to achieve their goals and a sense of being "ripped off." All athletes expressed feelings of shock, grief and sadness associated with sport retirement. Those athletes that were still involved in sport competition identified fear in a loss of identify with retirement from sport. Athletes indicated a lack a training or preparation for retirement with many athletes reporting that retirement occurred very rapidly (here one minute, gone the next). Permanently retired athletes indicated a desire to return to physical activity now that they were retired. The primary motive was physical conditioning and the fear of aging with disability. In some instances this was associated with chronic secondary disability. Those that were semi-retired additionally wished to return to sport. Their wishes were to return to competitive sport with motives to complete unfinished business and achieve personal athletic goals.

Martin, J. (1996). Transitions out of competitive sport for athletes with disabilities. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 35(2), 128-136.

The article presents a review of the literature as it relates to the transition out of sport for persons with disabilities. Due to availability of literature, the information presented is based greatly on research completed with individuals without disabilities. Where available, research completed with people with disabilities is presented, and the author does recognize the significant difference in sport socialization for persons with disabilities versus people without disability. The transition theory is presented as the theoretical construct to research related to the process of transition out of sport. This process is influenced by the following factors: (a) whether the transition is expected or unexpected; (b) the impact of the transition on the athlete's lifestyle (daily routine, settings or communities, and friendships); (c) the athlete's personal identity and its enmeshment in sport; (d) the perception of control over the process and timing of the transition; (e) the athlete's social support system; (f) the athlete's perception of goal attainment in competitive sport; and (g) the amount of preparation for retirement from sport. The author offers recommendations to practitioners in assisting persons with disabilities in the retirement from sport. These strategies include: (a) communicate the importance of life outside of sport; (b) illustrate the connection between sport mental skills and life skills; (c) offer "pre-retirement" educational information regarding support systems, coping, benefits of leaving sport, and others; and (d) facilitate opportunities for elite athletes to share their knowledge with children and suggest volunteer opportunities as appropriate.

Williams, T. (1994). Disability sport socialization and identity construction. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 11, 14 - 31.

The author presents a review of the literature related to sport socialization in athletes with disability. The article compares the theoretical construct applied to research currently completed. Literature utilizing a structural-functionalism theoretical framework typically analyze those components of socialization that are identified as creating a successful social situation. Results of such research would suggest that: (a) coaches, other athletes, and sports scientists have greater influence on sport socialization than parents and teachers; (b) socialization sport environments vary from disability to disability (ie. persons with sensory impairments socialize in residential schools and segregated sporting events, persons with cerebral palsy socialize in sport via the competitive events and non-school disability sports clubs); and (c) onset of disability and severity of disability impact the sport socialization process. Those researchers that have explored the interactionist theory assess socialization as an ongoing process which recognizes the athlete as an active facilitator to this process. Interactionism obtains "rich" data that offers support to the structural-functionalist approach.

Hopper, C. (1986). Socialization of wheelchair athletes. In C. Sherrill (Ed.), Sport and disabled athletes (pp.197 - 202). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

The study assessed the affect of sport participation on four socialization variables which included: athletic aspiration, educational aspiration, occupational aspiration and self-esteem. Eighty-seven athletes involved in wheelchair sports were sampled having diagnosis ranging from quadriplegia to bilateral lower extremity amputee. Individuals sampled ranged in ages from 16 to 60 with a mean of 27 years.

Results indicated that:

The author concluded that self-esteem is not directly related to success or socialization in sport. The author additionally concluded that socializing agents for individuals with disabilities contribute to higher athletic aspirations which he reports differs from the reaction of able-bodied athletes. Finally, the author concludes that as wheelchair athletes become more involved in sport a decrease in educational aspiration occurs.

Wang, W. & DePauw, K. (1995). Early sport socialization. Palaestra, 11(2), 40-46.

The purpose of this study was to explore the role of early sport experiences on later competition in athletes who were among the first to compete in sports for person with disabilities in China. A survey instrument designed by Gavron was utilized for purposes of this study, entitled the "Early Recreational and Sport Experiences of Elite Athletes with Disabilities." This instrument provided questions related to family influence in sport participation, aspiration of the athletes prior to age 18 and encouragement in sport participation prior to age 18. Eighty-nine athletes from China were selected to be sampled. A 74% return rate was obtained on the survey. Athletes surveyed had participated in track and field, table tennis and swimming. The majority of athletes reported they trained up to 14 hours weekly. The majority of those sampled indicated they were deaf or paraplegic. The majority of athletes indicated they had been physically active most of their lives. 13% indicated they were involved in competitive sport prior to age 13. However, 76% indicated that they were involved in competitive sport by the age of 18. 73% of the subjects' parents were reported to had no competitive sport experiences. There was additionally no significant influence to the influence of sport participation of the sibling and the participation in sport by person with disabilities. The authors suggest that sport participation was encouraged by parents of athletes but due to socio-economic status were unable to participate themselves in sport.

Martin, J. & Mushett, C. (1996). Social support mechanisms among athletes with disabilities. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 13, 74-83.

The purpose of this investigation was to identify the social support networks of people with disabilities and to examine selected psychological constructs (competence, self confidence, and satisfaction) and their relationship to social support. 78 swimmers (44 males, 34 females) with various diagnosis were sampled in this investigation. All participants were either affiliated with the Australian Sport Institute (n=42) or were competitors at the Cerebral Palsy Games in Nottingham, England (n=36).

A modification of the social support questionnaire (Pines, et al., 1981) was administered. Six social supports were identified to include shared social reality, emotional support, challenge, technical appreciation and challenge, and listening. Participants were asked to rank their perception of importance of each of these values. Participants were also asked to identify individuals that provided these social supports (i.e., parent, coach, teammate). Finally, each participant was asked to rate how fulfilled they felt in each area of support. MANOVA analyses were utilized to examine ratings of importance for each type of social support. Pearson correlations were utilized to determine relationship between perceived self-efficacy and athletic satisfaction with the levels of social support.

Participants rated all six areas of social support to be important or very important. The three areas of most importance were technical challenge, technical appreciation and emotional support. On the average, athletes indicated that between 3 - 4 people provided supports and this was perceived by the athletes to be adequate to fulfill social needs. The most frequent provider of social support was were friends, mothers and coaches.

The authors report that the findings of the current research differs from results of research with able-bodied athletes who indicate an average of only 2 people to fulfill their social support needs. Therefore, the authors conclude that athletes with disabilities rely on increased number of persons to provide social support. The authors conclude that the athletes in the current study had healthy social support systems to assist in coping with psychosocial or physical stresses. This conclusion was based on the number of providers of support and the degree of perceived fulfillment.

Sherrill, C. (1986). Social and psychological dimensions of sports for disabled athletes. In C. Sherrill (Ed.). Sport and disabled athletes (pp 21 - 33). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

The purpose of this paper was to review the various social and psychological dimensions of sport for persons with disability. The paper is based on interviews with 300 elite athletes from 1980 - 1984. Two-thirds of the athletes interviewed had diagnosis of cerebral palsy and the remainder of the athletes were diagnosed as blind or partially sighted. Those interviewed were between the ages of 17 and 60 with an approximate mean age of 26. The athletes reported that stigmatization, stereotyping, and prejudice were some of the major problems they encountered. The author notes that these behaviors can lead to discrimination. Many athletes interviewed believed that participation in sports was a method of "fighting" this prejudice and gaining increased acceptance from people without disability. On the other hand, athletes indicated unanimously they wished to be "stereotyped" as a member of a "sporting classification" versus a group of individuals with disability. The author also noted that many athletes are resisting "integration" with athletes of other disability sport organization because they prefer the pride and social alliance associated with being a unique disability sporting group. One cannot discuss the issue of stigmatization and stereotypic behaviors without reviewing the concept of prejudice. The author reports the most stigmatized by prejudice are persons with cognitive impairments whereas, the least stigmatized are persons with sensory impairments. For this reason, those persons that have disabilities that are least stigmatized (i.e., sensory impairments) are prejudiced against people who are more stigmatized (i.e., persons with mental retardation). Therefore, may people with physical disabilities (i.e., cerebral palsy, spinal cord injuries, visually impaired, deaf) express prejudice toward athletes that participate in the Special Olympics. Some athletes report concern over discrepancies of resources while others voice concern that the general public will generalize stereotypes about mental retardation to persons with physical disability. In this article, Sherrill additionally explores research related to disability sport under the broader topics of motivation theory, participation theory, and social learning theory.

Green, F. & Schleien, S. (1991). Understanding friendship and recreation: A theoretical sampling. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 25(4), 29-40.

The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of recreation participation on the development of relationships and/or friendships in persons diagnosed as mild and/or moderate mental retardation. Eleven individuals aged 25 - 38 participated in the five month study. For purposes of this investigation, friendship was characterized as positive affective ties and mutually reciprocal relationships. During three months of the investigation the subjects were observed during recreation participation. They were also interviewed to obtain feedback regarding their perceptions of friendships. Results indicated that persons with mental retardation perceive care givers and trainers as their friends. In fact, 100% of the subjects indicated that their closest friend was a staff member. To a lesser degree subjects indicated other residents and family members were also their friends. Observations during recreation participation occurred over a three month period of time. This field research supported the perception that friendships existed but the reciprocity involved in friendship did not exist. Observation data shoed that subjects did not meet and make new friends during recreation participation. Subjects were observed to engage in parallel play versus cooperative and interactive play. During one sporting event (festival) the participants were noted to socially disregard others in the group. Based on the results of this study the authors recommend the need for curricular development and social skills training to include friendship instruction. The authors felt that this level of training would offer participant insight into the role and responsibilities of friends so as to assist in building meaningful relationships.

Blinde, E. & McClung, L. (1997). Enhancing the physical and social self through recreational activity: Accounts of individuals with physical disabilities. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 14, 327-344.

Blinde and McClung completed this qualitative study to explore the impact of physical activity on the lives of people with disabilities. Research questions centered around three basic themes: (a) the impact of activity participation on physical capabilities; (b) the impact of activity participation on social life; and (c) the impact of participation on independence. Participants in this study were college students with physical disability aged 19 - 54. A series of open-ended questions were developed to guide the interview process. Individuals who took part in the study agreed to participate in an individualized recreation program. As a component of this program they had the opportunity to select one more of the following activities in which to participate: swimming, horseback riding, racquetball, fitness, bowling, tennis, Tai chi, walking, fitness, and/or weight lifting. Participants engaged in the activity a duration of five to twenty-four weeks.. Interviews were completed two weeks following involvement in the individualized physical activity program. Interviews were completed by persons who had no involvement in the physical activity program. Participants reported that involvement in physical activity enhanced both physical and social self perceptions. For purposes of this abstract only the sociological features will be discussed. Following programmatic involvement, participants reported their perceptions of social self were modified by: (a) expanding their experiences and social interactions and, (b) initiating social activities. Participants indicated the program got them "out of the house," gave them opportunities to meet new people and offered opportunities for increased interaction with persons without disability. Greater control over social life was also noted as a social outcome of participation in a physical activity program.

References

Stewart, D. (1991). Deaf sport: The impact of sports within the Deaf community, Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet.

Sherrill, C. (Ed.). (1986). Sport and disabled athletes, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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